CHSBLES— « 

tfALMERn 


GIFT  Of 

Charles   •".   Marsh 
to  I'u  Lartifeda 


ORAL    ENGLISH 

OR 

THE    ART    OF   SPEAKING 


BY 

ANTOINETTE    KNOWLES 

INSTRUCTOR   IN   PUBLIC   SPEAKING,   HIGH   SCHOOL 
SAN   JOSE,   CALIFORNIA 


"  There  can  be  no  greater  imputation  on  the  in- 
telligence of  any  man,  than  that  he  should  talk 
from  the  cradle  to  the  tomb  and  never  talk  well." 

—  G.    J.   HOLYOAKE. 


*   ■»  *     •  • 


' .     '   •      •  •     • 

••>',     tilt'' 
•  •"'  •     ••       •  » 


D.    C.    HEATH   &   CO.,    PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON  NEW    YORK  CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1916, 
By  D.  C.   Heath  &  Co. 

116 


I    1  ^  • 


• .      •  .  .  ■• 


Si 


^  PREFACE 


^  This  book  has  been  written  to  supply  a  need.  The 
cj  vocational  and  civic  importance  of  the  ability  to  speak 
<:  has  been  recognized  by  teachers  of  English   throughout 

the  country,  but  as  yet  the  meaning  of  "Oral  EngHsh"  is 
1  rather  vaguely  and  variously  understood.     We  are  con- 
's scious  of  our  goal,  but  we  lack  method  in  our  efforts  to 
i  attain  it.     It  is  true  that  we  no  longer  imagine  that  the 
J  art  of  speaking  can  be  taught  in  a  half-dozen  lessons  to 

the  commencement  speaker  or  the  interscholastic  debater, 
^  but  we  still  lack  that  systematic  basis  of  instruction  which 
"^  has  already  been  furnished  for  the  older  subjects  and  which 
■^  is  necessary  to  a  well-directed  activity. 
^  This  text  is  the  outgrowth  of  ten  years  of  experiment 
^  and  research  and  in  its  present  form  is  the  result  of  many 
^  careful  revisions.     It  is  hoped  that  it  may  prove  to  be 

a  useful  guide  in  the  oral  work  of  the  regular  four  years' 
^  English  course  as  well  as  in  the  work  of  the  special  course 

in  Public  Speaking.     Suggestions  as  to  ways  in  which  its 
^  usefulness  may  be  increased  will  be  cordially  accepted. 
(j       Certain  features  of  the  work  are  original;  the  chief  of 
{j  these  are  the  general  {)!un  of  presentation,  the  handling 

of  the  four  forms  of  discourse,  and  the  word-outline  method 
u.  of  oral  i)reparati(jn  described  in  Chapters  VII  and  VIII. 
^_  As  to  the  remainder,  the  writer  pleads  guilty  as  docs 
n   Kipling  in  the  following  verse: 


ni 


258515 


iv  PREFACE 

"When  'Omcr  smote  'is  bloomin'  lyre 
'E'd  'card  men  sing  by  land  and  sea; 

And  wol  'e  thot  'e  might  require 

'E  went  and  took,  the  same  as  me." 

For  all  that  which  has  been  contributed,  either  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  the  author  is  duly  grateful,  and 
especially  to  those  who  have  courteously  permitted  the  use 
of  extracts  from  copyrighted  material. 

San  Jose,  California,  June  26,  igi6. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    Our  Purpose  in  Studying  the  Art  of  Speaking  i 

PART    I  — DELIVERY 

II.    Voice  Training 8 

III.       Re.U)ING 22 

IV.    Declamation 42 

PART   II  —  COMPOSITION 

V.    A  Speaker's   Use   of   the   Four  Forms  of  Dis- 
course        58 

VT.    The  Speaker's  Equipment 68 

^   VII.    How  to  Plan  a  Speech 79 

VIII.    Oral  Preparation 88 

IX.    How  to  Plan  a  Story  or  Description  ....  102 

X.    The  Art  of  Phrasing      no 

PART  III  — ARGUMENT  AND   PERSUASION 

XI.    The  Game  of  Debate      120 

Xn.    The  Question 127 

XIII.  H(jw  to  Use  a  Liukaky 132 

XIV.  Analysis  of  the  Question 144 

XV.    Proof  and  its  Tests i.=;5 

XVI.    The  Hkikf 166 

XVII.     Development  of  a  Speech  from  a  Brief  .    .    .  iSi 

X\III.    Tm.  Handling  of  Refutation ig2 

V 


vi  CONTENTS 

XIX.    Teamwork 197 

XX.    Attitude 204 

XXI.    Introductions  and  Conclusions 215 

XXII.    The  Persuasive  Speech 226 

PART  IV  — SPEECHES   FOR   SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

XXIII.  The  Oration 245 

XXIV.  Speeches  of  a  Presiding  Officer 264 

XXV.    Speeches  for  Social  Occasions 282 

APPENDIXES 

I.     Specimen  Outline  for  a  Two-Minute  Speech ....  291 

II.     Subjects  for  Argumentative  and  Expository  Speeches  293 

III.     Subjects  for  Narrative  and  Descriptive  Speeches  .    .  309 

IV.     Specimen  Introduction  to  a  Debate 317 

V.    (a)   Clash  of  Opinion  and  Brief  on  "  Student  Gov- 
ernment" 319 

(b)   Brief  Arranged  for  Two  or  Three  Speakers     .    .  324 

VI.     List  of  Debatable  Questions  with  References    .     .    .  326 

VII.     Subjects  for  Persuasive  Speeches S33 

VIII.     List  of  Eulogies  for  Study 33.5 

IX.     List  of  Birthdays  for  Anniversary  Celebrations     .    .  338 
X.    List    of    Addresses    Commemorative    of    Historical 

Events 340 

XI.     Oration  Subjects      342 

Bibliography 344 

Index 355 


ORAL    ENGLISH 

CHAPTER   I 
OUR    PURPOSE    IN    STUDYING    THE    ART    OF    SPEAKING 

Introduction.  —  A  life  without  a  purpose  does  not  count 
for  much.  The  sooner  we  decide  on  our  aim  in  Hfe  the 
more  hkely  are  we  to  win  success.  What  is  true  of  one's 
Hfe  is  true  also  of  any  particular  work  that  one  may 
undertake.  If  our  goal  is  in  sight,  if  we  know  just  what 
it  is  we  are  working  for,  our  energies  are  aroused  and, 
almost  without  knowing  it,  we  do  harder  work  and  so  get 
better  results.  Let  us,  at  the  start,  then,  ask  and  answer 
this  question:  "  Why  should  we  study  the  art  of  speak- 
ing? "  Perhaps  some  one  will  say,  "I  do  not  need  to 
learn  to  speak  well  for  I  do  not  expect  to  become  a  lawyer, 
a  preacher,  or  a  statesman."  I  hope,  however,  that 
when  you  have  fmished  reading  this  chapter  you  will 
agree  that  everyone,  rich  or  poor,  brilHant  or  stupid, 
boy  or  girl,  should  study  the  art  of  speaking. 

Earning  a  Living.  —  In  the  first  place,  it  will  help  you 
to  earn  a  living,  and  most  of  those  for  whom  this  book 
is  written  will  have  to  do  that  very  thing.  It  may  be 
that  you  have  decided  to  take  an  engineering  course. 
You  have  thought  that  an  engineer  does  not  need  to  know 
how  to  talk;  that  he  needs  merely  to  know  how  to  i)lan 
and   how  to  work.     But   the  head   of  the  University  of 


2  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Pittsburgh,  when  he  asked  a  body  of  engineers  what  they 
considered  the  most  important  part  of  a  college  course, 
received  a  reply  about  as  follows:  "  You  cannot  empha- 
size too  strongly  the  advantages  that  come  to  men  from 
the  ability  to  think  on  their  feet,  to  express  a  well-thought- 
out  proposition  extempore,  to  adapt  themselves  and  their 
conversation  instantaneously  to  changing  conditions  as 
they  arise."  ^  The  young  man  who  wishes  to  be  a  suc- 
cessful engineer  should  study  mathematics,  it  is  true,  but 
he  should  study  also  that  art  which  will  enable  him  to 
enlist  the  cooperation  of  capitalists,  whose  funds  will 
be  necessary  to  the  promotion  of  his  enterprises.  Of 
two  engineers,  one  may  have  the  better  plan  for  the 
building  of  a  bridge;  but,  if  he  is  unable  to  present  its 
merits  clearly  before  the  city  council,  the  other  may 
secure  the  contract. 

The  boy  or  girl  who  intends  to  enter  the  business 
world  has  even  greater  need  for  skill  in  the  expression  of 
thought.  The  Director  of  High  Schools  in  Pittsburgh 
addressed  a  circular  letter  to  the  business  firms  of 
the  city,  asking  them  to  state  what  is  most  necessary  in 
order  to  fit  boys  for  success  in  business.  Ninety-nine 
per  cent  laid  stress  on  the  advantage  of  being  able  to 
write  and  speak  the  English  tongue  accurately  and  for- 
cibly. The  general  manager  of  an  international  business 
house  which  employs  thousands  of  salesmen  said,  "  I 
never  can  get  enough  men  for  the  more  important  positions 
of  the  firm  because  there  are  so  very  few  men  who  can 
present  their  own  arguments  clearly  and  overcome  the 

1  This  testimony,  as  well  as  that  which  follows  from  business  men, 
has  been  adapted  from  an  article  written  by  Allan  Davis  and  published 
in  Tkc  Speaker,  No.  21. 


PURPOSE  OF  THE   STUDY  3 

arguments  of  the  other  side  without  giving  offence.  I 
have  three  positions  paying  $5000  per  year  and  I  am 
unable  to  get  men  of  the  personality  to  fill  them."  No 
matter  what  you  have  for  sale,  be  it  ribbons  or  real  estate, 
your  success  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  way  in  which 
you  present  its  worth. 

Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  you  will 
learn  to  talk  after  you  have  made  your  start  in  business. 
The  fact  that  you  are  unable  to  speak  for  yourself  may 
destroy  your  chance  to  make  the  start.  The  employer 
of  to-day,  whether  he  be  a  banker  or  a  member  of  a  school 
board,  is  not  satisfied  with  a  written  application.  He 
desires  a  personal  interview,  and  that  candidate  is  most 
successful  who,  other  things  being  equal,  is  best  able  to 
present  his  case.  If,  then,  we  wish  to  belong  to  that  class 
which  is  wanted,  if  we  wish  to  keep  out  of  the  ranks  of 
the  unemployed,  we  must  not  only  be  capable  but  we  must 
also  know  how  to  make  our  capabilities  recognized. 

Self-mastery.  —  While  the  ability  to  earn  a  livelihood 
is  of  primary  importance  and  should  be  given  first  con- 
sideration in  planning  our  education,  there  is  scarcely  a 
human  being  who  does  not  wish  to  be  something  more 
than  a  mere  healthy  animal.  We  desire  the  full  develop- 
ment of  our  powers.  We  covet  that  self-mastery  which 
will  place  us  at  case  in  all  the  circumstances  of  our  social 
life.  Self-command  and  the  use  of  well-chosen  words 
are  marks  of  culture  which  may  be  exhibited  in  conversa- 
tion as  well  as  before  an  audience.  This  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  story  of  a  poor  French  youth  who  once  went  in 
mean  attire  to  call  upon  one  of  Napoleon's  statesmen. 
He  was  received  with  coldness,  but  he  showed  so  much 
intelligence  in   conversation    that   the   statesman  accom- 


4  ORAL  ENGLISH 

panied  him  to  the  door,  saying,  "  My  young  friend,  we 
receive  an  unknown  person  according  to  his  dress;  we 
take  leave  of  him  according  to  his  merits." 

When  we  first  attempt  to  speak  before  our  classmates, 
we  usually  discover  that  we  are  not  masters  of  ourselves. 
Our  bodies  are  not  our  faithful  servants.  Our  knees 
tremble,  our  eyes  fear  to  meet  those  of  our  listeners,  and 
our  hands  seem  too  large  for  the  pockets  in  which  we  seek 
to  hide  them.  Even  our  minds  are  rebelhous  and  refuse 
to  act  freely. 

But,  if  we  continue  to  practice,  we  shall  see,  both  in 
ourselves  and  in  others,  fear  giving  place  to  confidence 
and  awkwardness  to  ease.  It  may  even  be  that  a  few 
who  read  this  chapter  to-day  will  become  the  Wendell 
Phillipses  and  the  Henry  Ward  Beechers  of  tomorrow. 
Through  a  mastery  of  self  they  may  gain  the  power  to 
arouse  multitudes  to  right  action  and  to  convert  howls 
and  hisses  into  applause  and  support.  Such  power  can 
come  only  as  a  result  of  special  gifts  and  dihgent  study. 
The  debater  who  wins  a  few  victories  over  a  rival  school 
has  made  only  a  beginning.  The  study  of  the  art  of 
public  speech,  like  that  of  painting  and  music,  may  well 
be  made  the  work  of  a  hfetime. 

Citizenship.  —  Although  many  of  us  have  neither  the 
abihty  nor  the  desire  to  become  orators,  we  can  all  develop 
our  powers  so  as  to  make  of  ourselves  valuable  citizens; 
and  it  is  in  this  aim  rather  than  in  the  winning  of  personal 
success  that  we  shall  find  our  highest  motive  for  effort. 
Each  one  should  wish  to  take  an  active  and  useful  part  in 
the  life  of  his  community  and  state.  In  our  democratic 
nation,  the  one  who  can  speak  for  himself  and  his  fellows 
in   clear,   concise  Enghsh  will  have  innumerable  oppor- 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  STUDY  5 

tunities  for  service.  Much  of  the  work  of  the  world  is 
now  done  through  organizations.  If  we  desire  to  promote 
the  interests  of  a  certain  class  or  group  of  people,  we 
form  a  labor  union,  a  grange,  a  lodge,  a  woman's  club,  or 
a  medical  association.  If  we  wish  to  help  humanity  in 
general,  we  organize  a  church,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  a  Salvation 
Army,  an  Associated  Charities,  or  we  call  a  mass  meeting 
to  raise  money  for  those  who  suffer  from  flood,  famine,  or 
war.  In  order  that  our  government  may  be  of,  hy,  and 
for  the  people,  we  form  civic  and  political  clubs  and  call 
meetings  to  discuss  the  need  of  a  better  road,  a  larger 
schoolhouse,  or  a  new  charter.  Large  bodies  of  men  and 
women  must  be  moved  to  action.  If  those  who  are  wise 
and  good  do  not  help  to  form  public  opinion,  the  unwise 
and  the  evil  will  do  so  in  order  to  advance  their  own 
selfish  interests.  The  mere  talker,  it  is  true,  will  always  be 
held  in  contempt,  but  the  man  who  can  both  act  and 
influence  others  to  action  will  be  justly  counted  a  most 
worthy  citizen.  Could  an  Abraham  Lincoln  or  a  Woodrow 
Wilson  have  given  so  large  a  measure  of  service  to  his 
country  if  he  had  failed  to  study  the  art  of  pubHc  speech? 

Every  group  of  people,  large  or  small,  young  or  old, 
must  have  its  leaders.  Each  one  who  desires  the  largest 
usefulness  should  so  prepare  himself  that  when  the  oppor- 
tunity comes  to  cast  his  influence  on  the  side  of  what  is 
wise  and  right  he  can  do  so  with  effectiveness.  Oppor- 
tunities will  not  be  wanting  even  in  the  hfe  of  the  school. 

It  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  the  case  that  this  influ- 
ence can  be  exerted  most  advantageously  in  the  public 
assembly.  The  man  who  can  think  only  when  he  writes 
will  be  of  little  use  in  a  crisis  when  important  measures  are 
to  be  decided.     It  has  been  said  that  the  pen  is  mightier 


6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

than  the  sword,  but  it  is  not  mightier  than  the  tongue. 
As  Professor  Charles  Sears  Baldwin  of  Yale  University 
says,  "  The  greatest  practical  achievement  of  expression 
is  still,  and  always  will  be,  a  great  message  by  a  great 
speaker." 

Conclusion.  —  Why,  then,  should  you  study  the  art 
of  speaking?  Why  should  you  study  it  with  earnestness 
and  perseverance,  although  you  labor  under  great  handi- 
caps and  are  often  discouraged?  If  you  are  poor,  it  will 
help  you  to  self-support;  if  you  are  well-to-do,  it  will 
enable  you  to  use  your  influence  as  well  as  your  money 
to  some  good  purpose.  If  you  are  brilliant,  it  may  gain 
for  you  the  privilege  of  molding  public  opinion  at  some 
great  crisis  in  your  nation's  history;  if  you  are  stupid  in 
the  use  of  language,  even  the  slight  power  which  you  will 
acquire  may  be  the  means  of  giving  you  a  chance  to  show 
what  you  can  do  in  other  lines.  If  you  are  a  boy,  it  will 
help  you  to  live  a  man's  largest  and  richest  life;  if  you 
are  a  girl,  you  may  be  thankful  that  you  live  in  an  age 
when  it  is  no  less  womanly  to  speak  in  public  than  it 
is  to  embroider  or  to  cook,  and  that,  with  these  larger 
opportunities,  come  greater  responsibilities  and  greater 
usefulness. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 
Our  Purpose 


Introdh 

idion. 

I. 

Value  of  a  purpose. 

II. 

The  question  which  we  should  ask. 

Body. 

I. 

Help  in  earning  a  living. 

A.    The  engineer. 

B.    The  business  man. 

C.    The  one  who  seeks  a  position. 

PURPOSE  OF  THE   STUDY  7 

II.    Help  in  acquiring  self-mastery. 

A.  Our  desire  for  self-mastery  as  a  social  grace. 

B.  Our  present  condition. 

C.  Our  future. 
III.    Good  citizenship. 

A.  Opportunities  open  to  a  good   speaker  in  a  demo- 

cratic nation. 

B.  The  influence  of  a  speaker  as  compared  with  that  of 

a  writer. 
Conclusion. 

I.   Value  of  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  speaking  to 

A.  The  poor  or  the  well-to-do. 

B.  The  brilliant  or  the  stupid. 

C.  The  boy  or  the  girl. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  in  class  to  recite  from 
the  topical  outline. 


PART   I  — DELIVERY 

CHAPTER   II 
VOICE   TRAINING 

Introduction.  —  Part  I  of  this  text  aims  to  teach  the 
student  how  to  acquire  a  good  dehvery.  A  speaker  is 
said  to  have  a  good  dehvery  when  he  is  well  poised  be- 
fore his  audience  and  when  he  can  use  his  vocal  organs  so 
as  to  produce  an  audible  and  pleasing  tone.  Since  ease 
and  power  in  the  use  of  the  voice  and  body  cannot  be 
gained  except  by  patient  and  diligent  practice,  it  is  well 
for  the  student  to  learn  at  the  outset  the  principles  which 
govern  good  delivery  and  to  strive  to  apply  them  through- 
out his  course  in  the  art  of  speaking. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  one's  voice,  like  the  color 
of  one's  eyes,  cannot  be  changed.  A  bad  voice  is,  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  merely  a  bad  habit.  Everyone 
has  in  his  voice  a  musical  instrument  of  great  value.  He 
needs  only  to  learn  how  to  play  upon  it.  He  may  over- 
come the  wrong  habit  of  using  his  vocal  instrument,  as 
other  wrong  habits  are  overcome,  by  learning  how  to 
establish  a  correct  habit. 

A  voice  of  power  and  charm  is  much  to  be  desired. 
There  is  a  general  impression  that  the  voice  is  an  index 
to  character.  It  is  suspected  that  the  boy  with  the 
breathy  or  high-pitched  voice  is  lacking  in  manly  qualities. 
It  is  thought  that  the  girl  with  the  harsh  or  nasal  tone  is 


VOICE  TRAINING  9 

less  feminine  than  her  soft-voiced  sister.  Whether  or  not 
this  is  always  true,  we  must  admit  that  it  is  particularly 
disappointing  to  hear  discordant  tones  issue  from  the  lips 
of  a  beautiful  girl  or  woman.  If  we  notice  the  tones 
which  we  hear  on  the  street-car,  in  the  shops,  and  in  the 
homes,  we  find  that,  unfortunately,  very  few  people  have 
formed  the  habit  of  using  their  voices  correctly. 

I.   The  Voice-Machine  and  the  Organ 

The  human  voice-machine  has  been  compared  to  a 
single  reed-pipe  of  a  church  organ.^  This  instrument 
consists  of  three  parts,  a  wind-chest,  a  reed,  and  a  pipe, 
or  resonance  chamber.  The  reed  is  an  elastic  plate  in 
which  there  is  a  narrow  sHt.  The  air,  which  is  pumped 
into  the  wind-chest  by  bellows,  tries  to  escape  through 
the  narrow  sHt,  thus  causing  the  edges  of  the  elastic  plate 
to  vibrate  and  produce  sound.  The  tone  so  created  is 
set  free  in  the  pipe,  where  it  resounds  and  grows  louder 
before  it  is  permitted  to  reach  the  outer  air. 

The  lungs  may  be  compared  to  the  wind-chest,  the 
vocal  cords  to  the  reed,  or  the  edges  of  the  elastic  plate, 
and  the  tone  passage,  composed  of  the  cavities  of  the 
throat,  mouth,  and  nose,  to  the  resounding  chamber,  or 
pipe,  of  the  organ. 

Although  these  two  instruments,  the  human  voice  and 
the  organ,  are  very  much  alike,  there  is  one  great  differ- 
ence. Our  human  reed-pipe  has  a  marvelous  power  of 
adjustment  which  is  impossible  in  the  organ.  We  can, 
by  a  slight  change  in  the  shape  of  the  resonance  chambers, 
change  the  quality  of  the  tone  so  that  it  may  express  fear 
or  courage,  sorrow  or  joy.  It  is  because  of  this  wonderful 
•  W.  A.  Aiken,  The  Voice,  p.  6. 


lo  ORAL  ENGLISH 

power  to  respond  to  the  thought  and  feeling  of  its  owner, 
that  we  may  consider  the  human  voice  the  greatest  of 
musical  instruments. 

II.   Conditions  Necessary  to  Good  Tones 

If  we  wish  to  secure  tones  which  are  musical  and  pleas- 
ing, and  at  the  same  time  strong  and  audible,  we  must 
establish  certain  tone  conditions. 

Control  of  the  Breath.  —  In  the  first  place,  we  must 
learn  to  control  the  breath,  or,  in  other  words,  to  manage 
the  wind-chest.  The  primary  requisite  for  a  good  tone 
is  a  sufficient  supply  of  air.  The  power  to  use  the  lungs 
to  their  full  capacity  depends  very  largely  upon  the  main- 
tenance of  a  correct  bodily  position.  One  simple  direc- 
tion, "  Draw  the  chin  in  and  up,"  will,  if  kept  in  mind, 
enable  the  student  to  maintain  a  correct  poise.  If  he 
will  follow  this  direction,  he  will  notice  that  the  head  is 
brought  to  an  erect  position,  the  chest  is  raised,  the 
shoulder  blades  are  flattened,  the  hips  are  drawn  back, 
and  the  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  balls  of  the  feet.  This 
position  should  be  maintained  as  the  student  walks  to 
and  from  his  seat,  and,  in  fact,  on  all  occasions,  if  it  is  to 
become  natural  to  him  as  a  speaker.  In 
order  to  retain  it  while  reading,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  hold  the  book  or  notes  on  a  level 
with  the  shoulders.  If  the  speaker,  when 
standing,  will  place  his  feet  as  in  the  ac- 
companying illustration,  he  will  have  not  only  a  genteel 
appearance  but  also  a  good  balance.  The  line  a-b  should 
not  be  longer  than  three  inches. 

Having  taken  the  correct  position,  the  speaker  should 
use  his  entire  lung  capacity  at  each  inhalation.     If  one 


VOICE  TR.\INIXG  ii 

uses  only  the  upper  portion  of  the  lungs,  the  chest  and 
even  the  shoulders  will  rise  and  fall  with  each  breath;  on 
the  other  hand,  when  one  breathes  correctly,  the  chest 
remains  firm  and  high  and  the  body  expands  and  contracts 
at  and  just  above  the  waist  line. 

The  student  must  next  learn  how  to  hold  and  use  this 
supply  of  air  so  that  it  will  not  escape  too  rapidly.  After 
the  breath  has  been  taken  in,  there  should  be  a  feeling  of 
tension  about  the  whole  torso,  or  central  body.  It  may 
be  helpful  to  think  of  the  body  as  an  elastic  balloon  which 
collapses  very  gradually.  This  sense  of  firmness,  or  elas- 
ticity about  the  torso,  is  called  by  singers  "  support  of 
tone,"  "  column  of  air,"  or  "  breath  control."  When 
speaking  or  reading,  the  student  should  never  allow  the 
chest  to  fall,  but  should  exhaust  the  air  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  lungs  first,  renewing  the  supply  frequently. 
The  habit  of  speaking  with  a  full  chest  results  in  a  "  chest 
tone,"  as  distinguished  from  a  "  breathy  "  voice. 

The  Open  Tone  Passage.  —  In  the  second  place,  we 
must  learn  to  open  and  relax  the  tone  passage  in  such  a 
way  that  the  tones  produced  by  the  passage  of  the  air 
over  the  vocal  cords  may  have  a  chance  to  resound  and 
increase  before  they  reach  the  outer  air,  as  do  the  tones 
in  the  pipe  of  an  organ. 

The  resonance  chamber  of  the  mouth  should  be  made 
as  large  as  possible.  The  teeth  should  be  separated  in 
front  about  an  inch,  or  the  width  of  two  fingers.  The 
back  part  of  the  mouth  should  be  enlarged  also;  that  is, 
the  muscles  and  membranes  in  the  region  next  to  the 
throat  should  be  drawn  back.  If  the  student  will  follow 
these  directions,  he  cannot  fail  to  notice  an  increased 
volume  and  richness  of  tone. 


12  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Moreover,  by  keeping  the  mouth  well  open,  he  will  be 
able  to  avoid  poor  articulation,  or  "  mumbling."  This 
common  fault  is  due  to  inactivity  of  the  lips.  If,  how- 
ever, the  jaws  are  held  far  apart  in  the  production  of  the 
vowel  sounds,  the  lips  are  forced  to  discharge  their  duty 
in  the  formation  of  the  consonant  sounds  and  good  artic- 
ulation is  a  result. 

The  throat  must  be  kept  open.  A  tense,  closed  throat 
will  cause  a  rasping  or  "  throaty  "  voice.  This  not  only 
produces  unpleasant  sounds  but  also  wearies  the  speaker 
himself.  It  is  the  cause  of  what  is  usually  called  "  minis- 
ter's throat."  A  tight  throat  can  easily  be  recognized  by 
a  "  click  "  which  is  most  noticeable  in  words  beginning 
with  a  vowel.  In  order  to  open  the  throat  and  prevent 
this  "  click,"  which  is  caused  by  the  tension  of  the  swal- 
lowing muscles,  vocal  teachers  give  various  instructions, 
such  as,  "  Make  a  tunnel  of  your  body;  feel  as  if  about 
to  yawn;   stretch  the  circular  muscles  of  your  throat." 

The  nasal  passages,  also,  must  act  as  resonators.  We 
must  learn  to  secure  nasal  resonance  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  avoid  nasal  "  twang."  The  former  can  be  secured 
by  an  attempt  to  "  feel  the  tone  through  the  whole  face." 
The  latter,  nasal  "  twang,"  is  caused  by  drawing  down 
the  soft  palate  and  raising  the  back  part  of  the  tongue. 
This  position  prevents  mouth  resonance.  It  can  be  cor- 
rected by  an  attempt  to  keep  down  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue. 

Prolonging  the  Vowel  Sounds.  —  In  the  third  place, 
we  must  not  only  learn  to  retain  the  breath  and  enlarge 
the  tone  passages,  but  we  must  apply  these  tone  conditions 
to  the  vowels;  that  is,  we  must  learn  to  prolong  the 
vowel  sounds. 


VOICE  TRAINING  13 

As  the  consonants  have  very  little  sound  value,  the 
"  carrying  power  "  of  the  voice  depends  largely  upon  the 
quaUty  of  the  vowel  sounds.  The  habit  of  cutting  off 
the  vowel  sounds  is  a  common  defect  among  untrained 
speakers.  Their  voices  lack  "  carrying  power  "  because 
they  lack  resonance.  Even  singers,  who,  in  song,  nat- 
urally prolong  the  vowels,  sometimes  have  poor  speaking 
voices  for  this  very  reason.  They  fail  to  maintain  an 
openness  of  the  tone  passage  long  enough  to  enable  the 
vowel  sounds  to  be  reinforced.  Thus,  in  an  attempt  to 
secure  loudness,  they  strain  the  throat  muscles  and  pro- 
duce a  harsh  rather  than  a  "  singing  "  tone. 

The  habit  of  holding  the  vowel  sounds  will,  on  the 
other  hand,  make  the  voice  audible  even  when  it  is  lacking 
in  strength.  Whenever  we  halloo  to  some  one  at  a  dis- 
tance, we  unconsciously  apply  this  principle.  The  farther 
we  wish  to  send  our  voices,  the  longer  we  hold  the  vowel. 
Those  who  are  accustomed  to  addressing  large  audiences 
in  the  open  air,  speak  with  great  slowness  for  this  reason. 
The  best  actors,  who  use  this  method,  can  make  even  their 
whispered  words  heard  in  every  part  of  the  theater. 

III.     Skill  as  the   Result  of   Continued  Practice 

Skill  in  the  use  of  the  vocal  organs,  like  skill  in  boxing, 
tumbHng,  or  piano  playing,  is  a  matter  of  slow  growth 
anrl  cannot  be  acquired  in  a  day. 

Method  of  Practice.  —  Although  it  is  necessary  for  the 
student  U>  understand  the  vocal  mechanism  as  described 
in  this  chapter,  it  will  not  be  wise  for  him,  in  trying  to  pro- 
duce good  tones,  t<j  center  his  thought  primarily  upon 
the  voice-machine  and  its  workings.  The  effort  to  remem- 
ber  so   many  movements  to  which  he  is  unaccustomed 


14  ORAL  ENGLISH 

will  in  itself  create  a  tension  of  the  nerves  that  will 
defeat  his  purpose.  He  should,  rather,  let  his  ear  assist 
him.  He  should  train  his  ear  to  recognize  the  difference 
between  good  tones  and  poor  tones.  When  about  to 
produce  a  tone,  he  should  fix  his  mind  on  the  ideal  tone, 
and  his  vocal  mechanism  will,  to  some  extent,  adjust 
itself  to  meet  the  mental  demand.  He  should  then  listen 
to  his  own  tone  and  compare  it  with  his  ideal.  When  he 
has  discovered  his  fault,  he  should  exaggerate  it,  noticing 
the  sensation  in  his  vocal  instrument.  In  this  way,  he 
will  recognize  in  his  own  body  the  cause  of  the  incorrect 
tone.  He  should  then  try  again  to  imitate  the  good  tone 
and  again  notice  his  bodily  sensations.  By  this  method, 
his  ear  will  become  more  and  more  sensitive  to  tonal 
quahties  and  his  muscles  will  gradually  become  more  and 
more  responsive  to  his  will. 

Need  of  Time  and  Perseverance.  —  It  always  requires 
time  and  perseverance  to  substitute  a  good  habit  for  a  bad 
one.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  we  use  our  voices  rightly  dur- 
ing the  period  set  aside  for  practice  in  the  art  of  speaking. 
The  pianist  who  practiced  with  the  correct  movement 
for  one  hour  of  the  day  and  then  allowed  himself  to 
use  the  wrong  movement  for  three  hours  would  be  consid- 
ered extremely  foohsh.  Every  recitation,  every  bit  of  con- 
versation, should  be  made  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  good 
vocal  habits.  The  student  who  uses  his  vocal  instrument 
rightly  on  all  occasions  will  be  able,  without  special  atten- 
tion to  the  matter,  to  use  it  rightly  on  an  important  occa- 
sion. The  more  frequently  he  makes  the  effort,  the  more 
quickly  will  he  be  able  to  win  success  without  effort. 

All  Defects  can  be  Overcome.  —  Although  some  have 
larger  natural  endowments  than  others  in  the  matter  of 


VOICE  TR.\IXIXG  15 

voice,  experience  has  proved  that  there  is  no  defect  which 
cannot  be  overcome.  Demosthenes,  the  greatest  of 
ancient  orators,  had  a  weak  chest  and  an  impediment  in 
his  speech.  According  to  the  old  story,  he  cured  the  for- 
mer by  reciting  to  the  waves  and  running  up  hill,  and 
the  latter,  by  speaking  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth. 

Henry  Ward  Beecher,  who  excelled  all  his  contempo- 
raries both  in  the  pulpit  and  on  the  platform,  suffered, 
when  a  child,  from  enlarged  tonsils  and  a  small  throat. 
His  aunt  says  that  when  he  came  to  her  house  on  an 
errand,  she  was  obhged  to  ask  him  to  repeat  his  message 
several  times  before  she  could  understand  him.  For  nine 
years  he  gave  constant  attention  to  his  voice.  Of  this 
period,  Mr.  Beecher  himself  says,  "  There  was  a  large 
grove  lying  between  the  seminary  and  my  father's  house 
and  it  was  the  habit  of  brother  Charles  and  myself  to 
make  the  night  and  even  the  day  hideous  with  our  voices, 
as  we  passed  backward  and  forward  through  the  wood, 
exploding  all  the  vowels  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  our 
voices."  Later,  he  was  able  "  to  bewitch  his  audierices 
out  of  their  weariness  by  a  voice,  not  artificial,  but  made, 
by  assiduous  training,  to  be  his  second  nature." 

These  two  famous  examples  show  us  that  the  human 
voice  is  a  musical  instrument  which  will  not  only  respond 
to  the  skillful  player,  but  which  will  grow  stronger  and 
more  flexible  as  a  result  of  proper  use  and  treatment. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (1) 
that  the  human  voice  may  be  compared  to  the  reed-pipe 
of  a  church  organ;  (2)  that  if  we  wish  to  secure  good  tones, 
we  must  learn  to  control  the  breath,  keep  the  tone  pas- 
sage open,  and  prolon.i;  ihe  vowels;  and  (3)  that  skill  in 
the  use  of  the  vocal  organs  is  a  matter  of  slow  growth. 


1 6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Voice  Training 

Introduction. 

I.    Reason  for  beginning  with  the  study  of  delivery. 

II.   A  bad  habit. 
III.   Desirability  of  a  good  voice. 
Body. 

I.   The  voice-machine  and  the  organ. 

A .  The  parts  of  a  reed-pipe. 

B.  Their  likeness  to  the  parts  of  the  voice-machine. 

C.  The  main  difference. 

II.   Conditions  necessary  to  good  tones. 

A.  Control  of  the  breath. 

1.  Necessity  of  a  large  supply  of  air. 

(a)   Bodily  position  as  related  to  air  supply. 
(h)    Wrong  and  right  way  to  breathe. 

2.  Right  use  of  the  air  supply. 

B.  The  open  tone  passage. 

1.  The  open  mouth. 

(a)   Its  relation  to  articulation. 

2.  The  open  throat. 

(a)  Bad  results  of  a  closed  throat. 

(b)  Symptoms. 

(c)  Cure. 

3.  Nasal  resonance  versus  nasal  "twang." 

C.  Prolonging  the  vowels. 

1.  Ill  effects  of  cutting  off  the  vowels. 

2.  Power  to  be  gained  by  holding  them. 

III.   Skill  as  the  result  of  continued  practice. 

A.  Method  of  practice. 

1.  Danger   of   centering    the    mind   on    the  vocal 

mechanism. 

2.  Method  of  training  the  ear. 

B.  Need  of  time  and  perseverance. 

C.  Possibility  of  overcoming  all  defects. 


VOICE  TIL^INING  17 

III.   C,  I.    Demosthenes. 

2.  Henr>'  Ward  Beecher. 

3.  Difference  between  the  human  voice  and  other 

musical  instruments. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  in  the  text  as  far  as  the  topic,  "The  Open 
Tone  Passage"  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outHne. 
N.  B.  —  All  vocal  exercises  may  be   taken  either 
in  a  sitting  or  standing  position  (head  erect,  chest 
high,  feet  flat  on  the  floor,  and  hands  at  waist). 
Exercise  II.  —  For  Deep  Breathing,     (a)    Inhale  quickly  through 
the  nose,  expanding  the  middle  of  the  body.     Do  not  raise  the  shoul- 
ders.    At  the  same  time,  relax  all  parts  of  the  tone  passage  (throat, 
tongue,  jaw,  separating  the  teeth  but  not  the  lips). 

(b)  Exhale  through  the  mouth,  the  middle  of  the  body  gradually 
collapsing  like  a  balloon.     The  chest  should  remain  high. 

Note.  —  If  you  find  it  difficuU  to  learn  this  method  of  breathing, 
practice  it  frequently  after  going  to  bed  or  before  rising,  as  you  can  do 
it  more  easily  when  Ij^ng  down. 

Exercise  III.  —  Read  in  the  text  as  far  as  Division  III,  and  be 
able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  IV.  —  For  Open  Mouth,  (a)  Repeat  syllable  fa  four 
times  in  one  breath.     Open  the  mouth  as  wide  as  possible. 

(b)    Inhale  ^  fa  —  a —  a  —  a 
(f )    Inhale    fa  —  1  —  e  —  i  —  e 

(d)  Inhale    fii  —  o  —  u  —  6b 

In  exercises  b,  c,  and  d,  do  not  change  the  position  of  the  jaw  after 
giving  fii.  If  necessary,  insert  two  fingers  between  the  teeth  to  pre- 
vent it.  The  variations  in  the  vowel  sounds  are  caused  by  changes 
in  the  shape  cf  the  tongue.  Greater  resonance  is  secured  if  the  jaws 
are  held  open. 

(e)  We,  wick,  wack,  walk.  Repeat  three  times  in  one  breath, 
opening  the  mouth  as  wide  as  possible. 

Exercise  V.    -  For  Open  Throat  and  Breath  Retention.     (</)    00  — 

*  far,  fall,  ind,  ate,  ice,  6nd,  In,  even,  open,  put,  cool. 


1 8  ORAL  ENGLISH 

oh  —  ah.     Repeat  as  many  times  as  breath  will  permit.     The  sound 
"oo"  has  a  tendency  to  open  the  throat. 

(b)  ah  —  ah  —  ah  —  ah  —  ah  —  ah.  Before  giving  this  exercise, 
let  the  throat  feol  as  if  about  to  yawn.  The  first  five  syllables  should 
be  short  and  rapidly  given.  The  sixth  should  be  sustained  as  long 
as  possible  but  should  not  be  prolonged  beyond  the  point  of  comfort. 
Listen  to  the  tone,  trying  each  time  to  make  it  more  resonant.  If 
there  is  a  "click"  at  the  beginning  of  each  syllable,  precede  the 
exercise  with  the  "humming"  sound  m;  then  gradually  make  the  ni 
less  prominent.  The  m  sound  has  a  tendency  to  draw  the  tone 
forward  and  open  the  throat.  If  this  device  is  not  successful,  place 
the  tongue  forward  as  if  to  pronounce  th  at  the  beginning  of  the 
exercise.  Listen  to  your  tones.  When  you  secure  a  particularly 
good  one,  notice  the  bodily  sensation  and  try  to  reproduce  it. 

(c)  Repeat  Ex.  (b)  using  the  vowel  sounds  given  in  Ex.  IV,  b,  c, 
and  d. 

(d)  Thou  —  and  —  thou  —  and.  If  the  throat  is  closed,  the 
sound  a  is  apt  to  be  particularly  flat  and  lacking  in  resonance.  In 
this  exercise  try  to  keep  all  parts  of  the  mouth  and  throat  in  the 
same  position  for  a  as  for  on.     Prolong  each  as  much  as  possible. 

(e)  Give  each  of  the  following  words  four  times  in  one  breath: 
man,  land,  and,  after,  apple. 

(/)  Compose  a  sentence  for  each  word  in  e.  Try  to  get  a  resonant 
quality  for  all  words  but  particularly  for  those  which  contain  the 
sound  a. 

Exercise  VI.  — ■  For  Nasal  Twang,  (a)  Inhale  through  the  nose 
with  the  mouth  open  (soft  palate  is  puUed  down) ;  exhale  through  the 
mouth  (soft  palate  is  raised). 

(b)  ng  —  ah  —  ng  —  ah  —  ng  —  ah  —  ng  —  ah.  There  are  but 
two  nasal  sounds  in  the  English  language;  viz.,  n  and  ng.  In  this 
exercise,  the  soft  palate  and  the  back  of  the  tongue  should  come 
together  as  closely  as  possible  in  the  pronunciation  of  ng  and  should 
separate  as  far  as  possible  for  ah.  If  the  latter  direction  is  not  ob- 
served, ah  will  have  a  nasal  quality.  The  purpose  of  these  exercises 
is  to  increase  the  agihty  of  the  soft  palate  and  reveal  the  cause  of  the 
nasal  twang. 

Exercise  VII.  —  Using  the  knowledge  which  you  have  gained  in 
this  chapter,  explain  the  following  quotation:    "The  orator  is  Hke  a 


VOICE  TRAINING  19 

gun-barrel,  which  must  be  straight,  must  have  a  bore  as  large  as  the 
bullet,  and  must  have  powder  below  the  ball." 

Exercise  VIII.  —  Complete  the  reading  of  the  chapter  and  be  able 
to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  IX.  —  For  Pitch,  (a)  Sing  up  the  scale  using  any  vowel 
sound  in  Ex.  I\'.  Inhale  again  and  sing  down  the  scale.  This 
exercise  will  help  to  make  the  voice  more  flexible.  Many  voices 
have  an  average  pitch  which  is  too  high ;  a  very  few  have  an  average 
pitch  which  is  too  low.  The  voice  which  is  pitched  too  high  is  found 
most  frequently  among  women.  Nerve  strain  or  the  effort  to  speak 
loudly  has  a  tendency  to  raise  the  pitch.  B  below  middle  C  is  an 
average  pitch  which  is  pleasing  for  a  female  voice.  The  average 
pitch  for  a  male  voice  should  be  an  octave  lower. 

(b)  Try  to  find  the  average  pitch  which  you  habitually  use; 
strike  middle  C  on  the  piano  (male  voices  one  octave  lower)  and  with 
that  tone  as  your  average  pitch,  repeat  a  short  sentence.  Experi- 
ment with  several  tones  above  and  below  middle  C  in  the  same  way. 
If  you  find  that  your  average  pitch  is  either  too  high  or  too  low,  try 
to  correct  it. 

Exercise  X.  —  Applicalinn  of  All  Tone  Conditions.  The  following 
phrases  and  sentences  contain  thoughts  which  cannot  be  adequately 
expressed  except  by  a  full,  rich,  resonant  tone.  Many  of  the  vowels 
are  broad  and  for  this  reason  easily  lend  themselves  to  conditions  of 
resonance.  The  student  should  practice  before  a  mirror  to  be  sure 
that  the  teeth  are  an  inch  apart  in  front.  If  there  is  a  tendency  to 
cut  off  the  vowel  sound,  each  phrase  should  be  chanted  on  one  tone 
first;  then  the  phrase  may  be  repealed  with  the  same  length  of  tone 
but  with  speaking  inflections.  Practice  on  each  until  you  can  apply 
all  tone  conditions;  viz.,  deep  breathing  with  economy  in  exhalation 
and  sustained  resonance  in  throat,  mouth,  and  nasal  passages. 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  1)1  uc  ocean,  roll! 
Ring  out,  wild  bells,  to  the  wild  sky! 
Thou  too,  sail  on,  O  ship  of  State! 
Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great! 
God  of  our  fathers,  known  of  old  — 
Lorfl  of  our  far-flung  battle  line  — 
right  on,  thou  brave  true  heart. 
Milestones  mark  the  march  of  lime. 


20  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Exercise  XI. — For  Articulation.  One  should  articulate  with 
nicety,  but  without  affectation.  In  public  speech,  however,  articu- 
lation must  be  slightly  exaggerated.  If  you  speak  distinctly, 
you  will  be  able  to  make  yourself  heard  even  if  your  voice  is  not 
strong.  In  order  to  improve  articulation,  the  phrases  in  Ex.  X  may 
be  repeated  in  a  whisper. 

Exercise  XII.  —  Vowel  A .  The  following  phrases  contain  a  fre- 
quent repetition  of  the  vowel  a,  which  is  given  with  a  very  flat, 
unpleasant  quality  by  those  who  have  a  tendency  to  a  tight  throat 
or  a  nasal  twang.  Repeat,  giving  special  attention  to  the  vowel 
sound  a: 

The  happy  man  is  the  free  man. 

Dr.  Talmage  has  drawn  for  you  with  a  master  hand. 

I  am  glad  that  he  held  the  balance  of  battle  in  his  almighty  hand. 

Standing  hand  to  hand  and  clasping  hand. 

Exercise  XIII.  —  For  Stammering.  Place  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
back  of  the  upper  teeth.  Take  a  deep  inhalation,  relaxing  the  whole 
body.  Know  w^hat  you  want  to  say.  Speak  slowly,  holding  the 
vowels. 

Exercise  XIV.  —  For  Enlarging  Conversational  Tone.  Professor 
E.  D.  Shurter  says  that  public  speaking  is  simply  sustained  and 
heightened  conversation.  There  is  a  tendency,  however,  on  the 
part  of  young  speakers,  to  drop  all  natural  inflections  when  they 
attempt  to  make  their  voices  carry  in  a  large  room. 

Repeat  each  of  the  following  sentences:  ^  first,  as  if  to  one  person 
near  by,  entering  as  much  as  possible  into  the  spirit  of  the  thought; 
second,  as  if  to  one  thousand  people,  trying  to  reach  the  man  on  the 
back  seat,  and  retaining  the  same  intonations  used  in  the  first  repeti- 
tion. 

I  never  listened  to  such  beautiful  music  in  all  my  life! 

I  stood  by  you  through  thick  and  thin,  and  now  you  turn  around 
and  abuse  me. 

My  advice  is,  gentlemen,  to  throw  this  whole  thing  up. 

Let  us  make  this  the  greatest  organization  in  America.  We  can, 
we  will. 

'  Taken  from  Natural  Drills  in  Expression,  by  Arthur  Edward 
Phillips. 


VOICE  TRAINING  21 

I  appeal  to  j-ou,  sir,  was  it  fair? 

I  can  assure  j-ou  I  appreciate  your  kindness. 

Don't  give  up.     You  have  any  number  of  chances  yet. 

I  entreat  you,  I  beg  of  you  to  give  me  a  fair  hearing. 

Note.  —  As  has  been  previously  stated,  every  conversation  and 
every  recitation  should  be  regarded  as  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  right 
vocal  habits.  But,  in  addition,  each  student  should  set  aside  from  five 
to  ten  minutes  a  day  for  special  exercises  until  the  voice  is  well  under 
control  and  defects  have  been  overcome.  One  should  not  hesitate  to 
practice  because  of  cold  or  hoarseness.  The  athlete  does  not  fail  to 
e.xercise  his  muscles  because  they  are  stiff  or  lame.  In  fact,  the  correct 
use  of  the  voice,  including  deep  breathing  and  absence  of  strain,  will 
act  as  a  curative  agent. 

Exercise  XV.  —  Writien  Review.  Be  able  to  write  in  class  upon 
any  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  \'alue  of  Studjing  the  Art  of  Speaking. 

2.  Comparison  of  the  Voice  with  the  Organ. 

3.  Breath  Control. 

4.  Vocal  Resonance. 

5.  Training  the  Ear. 

6.  Necessity  of  Practice. 

7.  Possibility  of  Curing  All  Defects. 


CHAPTER  III 

READING 

Value  of  Learning  to  Read.  —  Let  us  look  at  the  matter 
first  from  the  standpoint  of  one  who  would  learn  to  speak. 
There  is  no  quicker  or  easier  way  to  train  the  voice  than 
by  practicing  reading  aloud.  When  we  read,  our  minds  are 
more  at  liberty  to  give  attention  to  correct  tone  produc- 
tion than  when  we  make  an  original  speech,  for  both  the 
thought  and  the  words  are  furnished  to  us  by  the  author. 
Many  great  orators  have  developed  their  voices  in  just 
this  way.  Webster  began  very  early  to  read  aloud  and 
often  delighted  the  neighbors  with  his  ability.  Rufus 
Choate,  during  a  large  part  of  his  life,  read  aloud  daily 
from  some  English  author. 

But  aside  from  this  consideration,  the  abihty  to  read 
well  is,  in  itself,  of  value  to  everyone.  Those  who  enter 
public  Hfe  make  almost  daily  use  of  this  power.  The 
clergyman  must  read  the  Bible;  the  lawyer  must  often 
read  long  passages  from  previous  court  decisions;  the 
legislator  must  read  certain  clauses  in  the  bill  which  he 
wishes  to  discuss.  Even  the  ordinary  man  or  woman 
finds  frequent  use  for  this  accompHshment.  He  may  be 
called  upon  to  act  as  secretary  for  an  organization,  and 
we  all  know  that  the  secretary  who  does  not  read  the 
minutes  of  a  meeting  so  that  he  can  be  understood  is  a 
nuisance.  Again,  one  who  is  a  good  reader  may  furnish 
an  unlimited  amount  of  pleasure  to  others  in  the  home  and 


READING  23 

in  social  circles.  But  perhaps  of  more  immediate  impor- 
tance is  the  fact  that  the  student  who  reads  well  derives 
vastly  more  enjoyment  from  the  study  of  literature  than 
one  who  has  not  this  ability. 

A  Set  of  Rules  Unnecessary.  —  We  do  not  need  to 
study  a  set  of  rules  in  order  to  learn  to  read  well;  all  that 
we  need  is  to  learn  to  read  as  we  talk.  If  we  raise  our 
voices  in  reading  because  some  one  tells  us  to  do  so,  we 
are  mere  machines  instead  of  human  beings.  The  ma- 
chine moves  when  some  force  is  applied  from  without; 
the  human  being  moves  because  of  Hfe  within. 

Dr.  S.  S.  Curry  defines  the  art  of  reading  aloud  as  "  the 
art  of  turning  cold,  monotonous  print  into  the  living  move- 
ment of  conversation."  It  is  quite  evident  that  we  do 
not  need  a  rule  to  tell  us  when  to  raise  or  lower  the  voice 
in  conversation.  We  modulate  our  voices  unconsciously 
in  accordance  with  our  thoughts  and  feelings.  We  are 
using  daily  in  our  conversation  all  the  inflections  and 
qualities  of  tone  which  are  necessary  in  our  reading.  If 
we  ask  a  question  which  demands  "  yes  "  or  "  no  "  for 
an  answer,  we  lise  the  rising  inflection:  for  example, 
*'  Did  you  go  to  town?  "  If  we  ask  a  question  which 
demands  some  other  kind  of  an  answer,  we  use  the  falHng 
inflection:  for  example,  "Why  did  you  go  to  town?" 
The  quality  of  tone  which  we  use  is  affected  by  our  feel- 
ings. If  we  should  hear  voices  in  an  adjoining  room, 
even  though  we  could  not  see  the  faces  or  distinguish  the 
words,  we  should  know,  by  the  quality  of  the  tone,  whether 
the  speakers  were  gay  or  sad,  friendly  or  angry. 

One  Rule  Only.  —  Professor  S.  H.  Clark  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  gives  but  one  rule  to  his  students  of  read- 
ing:  "Get  the   thought;     hold    the    thought;    give    the 


24  ORAL  ENGLISH 

thought."  When  we  examine  this  rule  closely,  we  find 
that  it  expresses  exactly  what  one  does  in  conversation. 
Let  us  take  an  example  of  a  conversation  which  would  re- 
quire deep  thought.  If  a  boy  should  try  to  explain  a 
problem  in  algebra  to  a  friend,  he  would  gci  an  under- 
standing of  the  problem  himself  before  he  began  to  explain 
it;  he  would  hold  that  understanding  in  his  mind  while  he 
was  explaining  it;  and  he  would  desire  to  give  that  under- 
standing to  his  friend.  Let  us  take  an  example  of  a  con- 
versation which  would  require  the  use  of  the  imagination. 
If  a  boy  wished  to  describe  to  his  brother  how  Tom  made 
a  home  run,  he  would  be  obhged  first  to  get  a  mind  picture 
of  Tom  making  a  home  run  by  going  to  the  game;  he 
would  then  hold  the  picture  in  his  mind  while  describing 
it;  and  he  would  desire  to  give  the  same  mental  picture 
to  his  brother.  Again,  let  us  take  an  example  of  a  bit 
of  conversation  which  would  express  feeling.  If  a  girl 
should  say  to  her  mother,  "  I  think  that  Mary  is  the 
nicest  girl  in  our  class,"  she  must  have  had  a  feeling  of 
admiration  before  she  spoke;  she  would  hold  the  feeling 
while  she  spoke;  and  she  would  desire  to  give  that  feeling 
of  admiration  to  her  mother. 

We  see,  then,  that  a  good  reader  is  merely  an  inter- 
preter', or  a  "  go-between,"  revealing  to  his  hearers  the 
thought  or  emotion  of  the  author.  The  reason  that  we 
are  not  all  good  readers  is  that  we  see  only  words  on  the 
page  and  do  not  follow  Professor  Clark's  rule. 

I.   How  TO  Get  the  Thought 

Necessity  of  Study.  —  In  order  to  get  the  thought,  we 
must  study  the  selection  which  we  expect  to  read  aloud. 
Even   an  experienced  reader   cannot  render  a  selection 


READING  2 


■":) 


perfectly  at  sight.  The  best  actors  spend  many  hours  in 
studying  the  meaning  and  in  trying  to  get  the  spirit  of 
the  lines  which  they  recite. 

General  Study.  —  Our  study  should  be,  at  first,  of  a 
general  nature.  We  should  seek  to  get  the  main  thought 
of  the  whole  selection.  Before  we  can  do  this,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  look  up  all  doubtful  words  in  the  dictionary 
and  to  search  for  the  meaning  of  historical  allusions.  We 
should  next  try  to  get  the  atmosphere  or  pervading  spirit 
of  the  whole.  Some  knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  author 
will  often  assist  us  in  this  matter,  as  will  also  the  circum- 
stances under  which  the  thought  was  first  written  or 
delivered.  After  having  made  these  researches,  we 
should  test  the  strength  of  our  grasp  upon  the  author's 
thought  by  condensing  the  idea  of  each  paragraph  into 
a  sentence  expressed  in  our  own  words.  This  test  should 
be  used  in  the  study  of  poetry  as  well  as  of  prose.  We 
shall  not  always  be  able,  however,  to  express  each  stanza 
in  a  separate  sentence,  for  it  sometimes  requires  two  or 
more  stanzas  or  parts  of  stanzas  to  express  a  single  thought. 

Phrasing.  —  We  should  follow  this  general  study  by  a 
special  study  of  each  sentence.  In  the  first  place,  we 
should  give  particular  attention  to  phrasing.  This  is 
a  term  applied  to  the  division  of  a  sentence  into  thought- 
groups.  Notice  that-  there  are  five  thought-groups  in 
the  following  sentence,  and  that  each  group  adds  one 
more  detail  to  our  picture  of  the  situation:  "  When  war 
broke  out/betwcen  Spain  and  the  United  States, /it 
was  very  necessary/to  communicate  quickly/ with  the 
leader  of  the  insurgents." 

If  we  were  telling  this  story  in  conversation,  we  should 
naturally    pause    between    these    thought-groups.     Some 


26  OR.\L  ENGLISH 

pauses,  it  is  true,  would  be  longer  than  others.  The  pause 
after  "  United  States  "  would  probably  be  the  longest, 
while  that  after  "  quickly  "  would  be  the  shortest.  In 
general,  the  greater  the  break  in  the  thought,  the  longer 
the  pause. 

Although  pauses  often  occur  at  punctuation  marks, 
these  signs  cannot  be  depended  upon  as  reliable  guides 
in  the  division  of  sentences  into  thought-groups,  for 
punctuation  is  used  primarily  to  indicate  grammatical 
structure.  For  instance,  in  the  sentence  given  above  the 
pauses  occur  at  three  points  where  there  are  no  punc- 
tuation marks.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  sentence, 
"  He  is  a  bright,  pretty,  little  child,"  a  pause  after  pretty 
would  be  quite  unnatural,  although  it  is  followed  by  a 
comma.  The  character  of  the  thought,  and  that  only, 
should  determine  for  us  the  position  and  length  of  the 
pauses. 

A  reader  who  "  minds  his  pauses  "  is  said  to  have  good 
phrasing.  The  term  is  used  also  in  music,  where  it  means 
the  grouping  of  tones  into  musical  phrases,  or  thoughts. 
If  one  is  to  have  good  expression  either  in  reading  or  in 
music,  he  must  first  of  all  have  good  phrasing. 

Emphasis.  —  In  the  second  place,  we  must  decide 
what  is  more  important  and  what  is  less  important  in 
each  sentence.  If  the  mind  really  grasps  the  relative 
importance  of  words  or  thought-groups,  the  voice  will 
express  that  importance  by  what  is  called  emphasis. 

Let  us  first  consider  the  relative  importance  of  words. 
Read,  for  example,  the  following  simple  conversations. 
Notice  that  the  same  five  words,  "  I  saw  your  father  to- 
day," are  found  in  the  last  line  of  each  conversation,  but 
that  in  each  case  a  diflerent  word  is  emphasized. 


READING  27 

Conversation  I 

John:     "Did  you  see  my  father  to-day,  Mary?" 

Mary:     "No,  I  did  not,  John." 

Teacher:     "I  saw  your  father  to-day,  John." 

Conversation  II 

John:     "Did  you  talk  with  my  father  to-day,  Mary?" 
Mary:     "No,  but  I  saw  your  father  to-day,  John." 

Conversation  III 

John:     "Did  you  see  my  father  to-day,  Miss  Blank?" 
Teacher:     "No,  John,  but  I  saw  your  father  to-day,  Mary." 

Conversation  IV 

John:     "Did  you  see  my  mother  to-day,  Miss  Blank?" 
Teacher:     "No,  but  I  saw  your  father  to-day,  John." 

Conversation  V 

John:     "Did  you  see  my  father  yesterday,  Mary?" 
Mary:     "No,  but  I  saw  your  father  to-day,  John." 

In  reading  these  conversations,  you  have  probably 
found  that,  when  you  wished  to  emphasize  a  word,  or 
make  it  important,  you  raised  the  pitch  of  your  voice  on 
that  word.  If  the  word  had  more  than  one  syllable,  the 
rise  in  pitch  occurred  on  the  accented  syllable.  Should 
you  translate  one  of  these  conversations  into  German, 
French,  Spanish,  or  any  other  language  which  you  are 
studying,  you  would  fmd  the  same  to  be  true  in  a  foreign 
tongue;  that  is,  although  the  word  order  might  be 
changed,  the  voice  would  stress  the  accented  syllable  of 
the  important  word.  Sometimes  the  emphasis  is  distrib- 
uted over  several  words;  as,  for  example,  in  llic  sentence, 


28  ORAL  ENGLISH 

"  I  have  brought  you  a  nice  roasted  chicken  to-day."  Since 
the  three  italicized  words  are  necessary  to  bring  out  the 
important  picture,  the  pitch  is  high  on  all  of  them.  Again, 
some  words  are  important  because  they  express  a  con- 
trast:  as,    "  It  rained  yesterday,  but  to-day  it  is  bright.''^ 

Thought-groups.  —  We  shall  next  consider  the  relative 
importance  of  thought-groups.  A  less  important  or 
subordinate  thought-group  is  naturally  pitched  in  a  lower 
key:  for  example,  "  During  the  vacation,  which  lasted 
three  weeks,  I  went  to  Chicago."  If  the  thought-groups 
are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  climax,  each  more  impor- 
tant than  the  preceding,  the  voice  becomes  higher  on 
each  group:  for  example,  "I  would  not  sell  it  for  ten 
dollars,  nor  for  fifty  dollars,  nor  even  for  one  hundred 
dollars."  The  Greek  word  KXlfia^,  from  which  our  word 
climax  is  derived,  means  "  a  ladder."  This  very  aptly 
suggests  the  climbing  movement  of  the  voice  when  we 
read  a  climactic  series  of  thought-groups. 

Color.  —  In  the  third  place,  we  should  study  each  sen- 
tence to  discover  the  feeling  that  it  is  meant  to  express. 
If  we  really  experience  a  certain  feeling,  it  will  give  life, 
or  color,  to  our  tones.  In  real  life,  we  do  not  describe 
a  sunrise  in  the  same  tone  in  which  we  describe  a  thunder- 
storm; neither  should  we  do  so  in  reading.  One  author 
has  well  said,  "  Words  represent  what  the  speaker  puts 
into  them.  If  he  utters  bright  dully,  he  contradicts  truth; 
if  he  pronounces  loved  coldly,  he  robs  it  of  the  human 
warmth  of  itself;  if  he  mumbles  lovely,  he  dwarfs  beauty."  ^ 
Many  readers  who  express  the  thought  well  fail  to  express 
the  feeling.  Dr.  S.  S.  Curry  in  reference  to  this  fault  has 
humorously  asked,  "  Why  do  men  read  the  twenty- third 

^  Mary  Angela  Keyes,  Stories  and  Story-Telling,  p.  60. 


READING  29 

Psalm  as  if  it  were  a  matter  of  grief  that  the  Lord  is  their 
Shepherd?  " 

The  foregoing  illustrations  must  have  made  it  clear  to 
the  student  that  a  great  deal  is  involved  in  the  first  part 
of  Professor  Clark's  rule,  "  Get  the  thought."  It  means 
that  we  must  not  only  grasp  the  thought  in  its  entirety, 
but  that  we  must  grasp  it  in  its  parts  and  must  under- 
stand the  relation  of  each  part  to  the  other  parts.  Further- 
more, the  word  thought,  as  applied  in  this  rule,  has  a  very 
inclusive  meaning;  so  that  the  rule  might  well  read,  "  Get 
the  picture,"  or  "  Get  the  feeling." 

II.    How  TO  Hold  the  Thought 

In  order  to  hold  the  thought,  we  must  take  plenty  of 
time  while  we  are  reading.  A  student  is  apt  to  think  that 
the  more  rapidly  he  pronounces  the  words,  the  better  he 
shows  his  ability  to  read.  But  this  is  a  mistaken  attitude. 
It  makes  no  difference  how  well  a  student  understands  the 
thought;  if  he  fails  to  give  the  thought  sufficient  time  to 
express  itself  in  his  voice,  his  efforts,  for  the  purposes  of 
oral  rendition,  are  practically  wasted.  He  should  linger 
over  each  group  of  words  as  he  reads  aloud,  trying  to 
realize  each  impression  intensely  and  living  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  one  idea  at  a  time.  It  has  been  said  quaintly 
but  very  truly,  "  When  thou  readest,  look  steadfastly 
with  the  mind  at  the  things  which  the  words  symbolize. 
If  there  be  question  of  mountains,  let  them  loom  before 
thee;  if  of  the  ocean,  let  its  billows  roll  before  thy  eyes. 
This  habit  will  give  to  thy  voice  pliancy  and  meaning." 
It  is,  pcrhai)s.  needless  to  say  that  the  reader  cannot 
form  this  habit  unless  he  forms  first  the  haljit  of  reading 
slowly.     The  reader  should  not  only  take  plenty  of  time 


30  ORAL  ENGLISH 

in  the  actual  utterance  of  the  words  themselves,  but  he 
should  also  allow  sufficiently  long  pauses  between  thought- 
groups.  If  he  is  intensely  realizing  each  idea  as  he  utters 
it,  it  is  only  at  the  pausing  places  that  he  is  able  to  look 
ahead  and  grasp  the  next  idea. 

III.   How  TO  Give  the  Thought 

The  student  may  feel  that  if  he  has  studied  and  under- 
stands the  thought,  he  has  made  sufficient  preparation 
for  reading.  In  order  to  give  the  thought  to  others,  how- 
ever, he  must  practice  the  selection  aloud  over  and  over 
again.  It  frequently  requires  many  repetitions  of  a 
difficult  sentence  before  one  can  express  the  idea  as  if  it 
were  his  own.  One  cannot  grip  the  thought  and  feel  the 
emotion,  and,  at  the  same  time,  be  struggling  with  diffi- 
culties of  tone,  articulation,  and  pronunciation.  He 
must  remember  that  the  words  are  the  words  of  others, 
and  that  if  he  would  make  them  the  medium  of  expression, 
he  must  first  make  them  his  own. 

The  best  results  will  be  obtained  if  the  student  will 
continue  to  work  on  one  sentence  until  he  has  overcome 
all  of  these  mechanical  hindrances  and  is  able  to  hold  the 
mind  actively  on  the  thought  while  he  reads  it.  Anyone 
who  has  learned  to  play  a  musical  instrument  will  reaUze 
the  value  of  this  advice.  If  one  wishes  to  learn  a  musical 
selection  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  he  should  master 
it  in  sections,  giving  an  especial  amount  of  time  to  the 
more  difficult  portions.  To  play  the  whole  selection 
through  several  times  in  a  bungling  and  inaccurate  way 
is  a  waste  of  time. 

Finally,  the  student  who  would  give  the  thought  must 
cultivate  the  attitude  of  giving.    He  must  learn  to  forget 


READING  31 

himself  and  to  desire  only  that  his  hearers  may  receive 
and  enjoy  the  thought  of  the  author.  If  he  notices  that 
he  has  failed  to  express  the  thought  clearly,  he  should  stop 
and  try  again.  Only  in  this  way  can  he  become  a  real 
interpreter. 

Conclusion. — In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
that  in  order  to  get  the  thought,  we  must  study;  (2)  that 
in  order  to  hold  the  thought,  we  must  take  time  while  we 
are  reading;  and  (3)  that  in  order  to  give  the  thought,  we 
must  practice  until  we  have  overcome  all  of  the  mechanical 
difficulties. 

The  following  quotations  show  that  one  who  has  mas- 
tered the  art  of  reading  is  not  without  honor.  The 
selections  may  well  be  memorized. 

"Like  music,  literature  needs  to  be  re-created.  Without  the 
interpreting  voice  the  printed  page  is  as  incomplete  as  the  score  with- 
out the  orchestra."  —  Isabel  Goeghill  Beecher. 

"We  are  all  poets  when  we  read  a  poem  well."  —  Carlyle. 

"A  poem  is  only  half  a  poem  until  it  is  well  read."  —  Tennyson. 

"Of  equal  honor  with  him  who  writes  a  grand  poem  is  he  who 
reads  it  grandly."  —  Longfellow. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Reading 
Inlroduclion. 

I.   Value  of  learning  to  read. 

A.  A  better  method  of  training  the  voice  than  actual 

speaking. 

B.  Value  to  the  man  in  public  life,  to  the  ordinary  man  or 

woman,  and  to  the  student. 
J  I.    A  set  of  rules  unnecessary. 

A.  The  machine  and  the  human  being. 

B.  Definition  of  the  art  of  reading. 

I.    Supported  by  examples. 


32  ORAL    ENGLISH 

C.    One  rule  only. 

1.  Examples  of  thought,  imagination,  and  feeling. 

2.  Difference  between  good  and  poor  readers. 
Body. 

I.    Method  of  getting  the  thought. 

A.  General  study. 

B.  Special  study. 

1.  Phrasing. 

(a)  Meaning  of  phrasing. 

(b)  Pauses. 

(i)    Variation  in  length. 

(2)    Relation  to  punctuation. 

(c)  Phrasing  in  music. 

2.  Emphasis  —  what  it  expresses. 

(a)  Relative  importance  of  words  illustrated. 

(i)    The  way  to  emphasize  a  word. 

(2)  Distribution  of  emphasis. 

(3)  Contrast. 

(b)  Relative  importance  of  thought-groups. 

(i)    Subordinate  groups. 
(2)     Climax. 

3.  Color. 

(a)  Definition. 

(b)  Examples  of  failure  to  express  feeling. 
II.    Method  of  holding  the  thought. 

A.  A  mistaken  attitude 

B.  Necessity  of  taking  time  on  the  words. 

C.  Necessity  of  taking  time  between  thought-groups. 
III.    Method  of  giving  the  thought. 

A.  Need  of  practice. 

B.  The  best  way. 

C.  Attitude. 
Conclusion. 

I.    Summary. 
II.    Quotations. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read   the  text  as   far  as  the  topic  "  Emphasis," 
and  be  able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outHne. 


READING  33 

Exercise  II.  —  Complete  the  reading  of  the  chapter  and  be  able  to 
recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  III.  —  Prepare  this  exercise  and  all  other  exercises  in 
reading  as  follows: 

1.  Read  the  whole  paragraph  through  silently. 

2.  Look  up  and  copy  in  your  notebooks  the  pronunciation  and 
meaning  of  any  new  words. 

3.  Look  up  the  historical  allusions. 

4.  Look  up  the  life  of  the  author. 

5.  Write  one  sentence,  using  your  own  words,  which  will  give  the 
substance  of  each  paragraph.  Do  not  say,  "Emerson  says,"  but 
write  it  as  if  you  were  expressing  the  idea  yourself. 

6.  Divide  the  sentences  into  thought-groups,  indicating  the 
pausing  places  by  vertical  lines. 

7.  Underline  the  words  which  you  think  require  emphasis. 

8.  Distinguish  between  instances  in  which  the  emphasis  should 
be  given  to  one  word  and  those  in  which  it  is  distributed  over  two  or 
more  words. 

9  Notice  and  check  any  examples  of  words  which  are  empha- 
sized because  they  express  a  contrast. 

10.  Decide  what  feelings  should  be  expressed. 

11.  Take  the  correct  standing  position  and  read  each  sentence 
aloud  until  you  can  read  it  as  t"he  author  would  have  said  it.  Imagine 
that  you  are  reading  these  selections  to  a  very  large  audience  and  try 
to  put  into  practice  all  of  the  instructions  given  you  in  Chapter  II 
on  how  to  use  the  voice.  You  must  practice  your  reading  lessons  aloud. 
A  student  cannot  learn  to  read  aloud  by  reading  silently,  any  more 
than  he  can  learn  to  play  the  piano  by.  sitting  and  looking  at  one. 

12.  Become  so  familiar  with  the  text  that  you  can  look  at  your 
audience  while  you  read  the  last  half  dozen  words  of  each  sentence. 
If  the  sentence  is  long,  be  able  to  look  ofT  for  several  words  preceding 
the  longer  pausing  places.  Do  not  merely  glance  from  the  book,  but 
really  look  into  the  eyes  of  your  listeners. 

13.  As  you  read,  try  to  hold  the  thought,  the  picture,  or  the 
feeling. 

14.  Forget  yourself  and  try  to  give  to  others  the  thought,  the 
picture,  or  the  feeling. 


34  ORAL  ENGLISH 

1.  From  Henry  Grady's  The  New  South: 

"  Some  one  has  said,  in  derision,  that  the  old  men  of  the  South,  sit- 
ting down  amid  their  ruins,  reminded  him  of  "The  Spanish  hidalgos 
sitting  in  the  porches  of  the  Alhambra  and  looking  out  to  sea  for  the 
return  of  the  lost  Armada."  There  is  pathos,  but  no  derision  in  this 
picture  to  me.  These  men  were  our  fathers.  Their  lives  were  stain- 
less. Their  hands  were  daintily  cast,  and  the  civilization  they  builded 
in  tender  and  engaging  grace  hath  not  been  equalled." 

2.  From  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson: 

"There  is  a  time  in  every  man's  experience  when  he  arrives  at  the 
conclusion  that  envy  is  ignorance;  that  imitation  is  suicide;  that  he 
must  take  himself,  for  better  or  for  worse,  as  his  portion;  that,  though 
the  wide  universe  is  full  of  good,  no  kernel  of  nourishing  corn  can  come 
to  him  but  through  his  toil  bestowed  upon  that  plot  of  ground  that  is 
given  him  to  till.  The  power  that  resides  in  him  is  new  in  nature, 
and  none  but  he  knows  what  that  is  which  he  can  do,  nor  does  he  know 
until  he  has  tried.  Therefore,  my  text  is.  Trust  thyself.  Is  it  not 
an  iron  string  to  which  vibrates  every  heart?" 

Exercise  IV.  —  i.    From  Henry  Grady's  The  New  South: 

"  Surely,  God,  who  had  stripped  him  of  his  prosperity,  inspired  him 
in  his  adversity.  As  ruin  was  never  before  so  overwhelming,  never 
was  restoration  swifter.  The  soldier  stepped  from  the  trenches  into 
the  furrow;  horses  that  had  charged  Federal  guns  marched  before 
the  plough;  and  fields  that  ran  red  with  human  blood  in  April  were 
green  with  harvest  in  June." 

2.   From  Webster's  Address  to  the  Jury  at  the  White  Murder  Trial: 

"  Gentlemen,  your  whole  concern  in  this  case  should  be  to  do  your 
duty,  and  let  consequences  take  care  of  themselves.  Your  verdict, 
it  is  true,  may  endanger  the  prisoner's  life,  but  then  it  is  to  save  other 
lives.  If  the  prisoner's  guilt  has  been  shown  and  proved  beyond  all 
reasonable  doubt,  you  wiU  convict  him.  If  such  reasonable  doubt 
of  guilt  still  remains,  you  will  acquit  him.  You  are  the  judges  of  the 
whole  case.  You  owe  a  duty  to  the  public  as  well  as  to  the  prisoner 
at  the  bar.  Doubtless  we  would  all  judge  him  in  mercy.  Toward 
him  as  an  individual  the  law  inculcates  no  hostility;  but  toward  him, 


READING  35 

if  proven  to  be  a  murderer,  the  law,  and  the  oaths  you  have  taken, 
and  pubHc  justice  demand  that  you  do  your  duty." 

Exercise  V.  —  The  following  selections  contain  examples  of 
thought-groups  which  are  subordinate  and  of  thought-groups  which 
are  arranged  in  the  order  of  climax.  Prepare  to  read  them  accord- 
ing to  directions  already  given.  In  addition,  place  parentheses  about 
each  subordinate  thought-group.  Read  the  sentence,  at  first  omit- 
ting the  part  in  parentheses.  If  you  have  made  no  mistake  the  sen- 
tence will  "make  sense"  without  the  subordinate  group.  Be  able 
to  point  out  in  Selection  2  the  examples  of  climax. 

1.  From  Henry  Grady's  The  New  South: 

''  Let  me  picture  to  you  the  footsore  Confederate  soldier,  as,  button- 
ing up  in  his  faded  gray  jacket  the  parole  which  was  to  bear  testimony 
to  his  children  of  his  fidelity  and  faith,  he  turned  his  face  southward 
from  Appomattox  in  April,  1865!  Think  of  him  as  ragged,  half- 
starved,  heavy-hearted,  enfeebled  by  want  and  wounds;  having 
fought  to  exhaustion,  he  surrenders  his  gun,  wrings  the  hand  of  his 
comrade  in  silence,  and  lifting  his  tear-stained  and  pallid  face  for  the 
last  time  to  the  graves  that  dot  the  old  Virginia  hills,  pulls  his  gray 
cap  over  his  brow,  and  begins  the  slow  and  painful  journey.  What 
does  he  find?  —  let  me  ask  you  who  went  to  your  homes  eager  to  find, 
in  the  welcome  you  had  justly  earned,  full  payment  for  four  years' 
sacrifice  —  what  does  he  find  when,  having  followed  the  battle-stained 
cross  against  overwhelming  odds,  dreading  death  not  half  so  much  as 
surrender,  he  reached  the  home  he  left  so  prosperous  and  beautiful?" 

2.  From  Webster's  Address  lo  the  Jury  at  the  White  Murder  Trial: 

"The  secret  which  the  murderer  possesses  soon  comes  to  possess 
him,  and,  like  the  evil  spirits  of  which  we  read,  it  overcomes  him  and 
leads  him  whithersoever  it  will.  He  feels  it  beating  at  his  heart, 
rising  to  his  throat,  and  demanding  disclosure.  He  thinks  the  whole 
world  sees  it  in  his  face,  reads  it  in  his  eyes,  and  almost  hears  its 
workings  in  the  very  silence  of  his  thoughts.  It  has  become  his 
master.  It  betrays  his  discretion,  it  breaks  down  his  courage,  it 
conquers  his  prudence.  When  suspicions  from  without  begin  to 
embarrass  him,  and  the  net  of  circumstance  to  entangle  him,  the 
fatal  secret  struggles  with  still  greater  violence  lo  burst  forth.     It 


36  ORAL  ENGLISH 

must  be  confessed;  it  will  be  confessed;  there  is  no  refuge  from  con- 
fession but  suicide  and  suicide  is  confession." 

Exercise  VI.  —  The  following  selections  are  full  of  pictures.  As 
you  practice  reading  them,  try  to  hold  the  pictures  in  mind.  The 
selection  from  Robert  Browning  contains,  according  to  the  judgment 
of  Edwin  Markham,  one  of  the  finest  lines  in  the  English  language. 
The  thought  includes  about  three  lines.  Which  of  the  lines  do  you 
like  best? 

1.  From  Graves: 

"I  have  seen  the  gleam  from  the  headlight  of  some  giant  engine 
rushing  onward  through  the  darkness,  heedless  of  opposition,  fear- 
less of  danger;  and  I  thought  it  was  grand.  I  have  seen  the  light 
come  over  the  eastern  hills  in  glory,  driving  the  lazy  darkness 
before  it,  till  leaf  and  tree  and  blade  of  grass  glittered  in  the  myriad 
diamonds  of  the  morning  ray;  and  I  thought  that  was  grand.  I  have 
seen  the  light  that  leaped  at  midnight  athwart  the  storm-swept  sky, 
shivering  over  chaotic  clouds,  'mid  howling  winds,  till  cloud  and  dark- 
ness and  shadow-haunted  earth  flashed  into  midday  splendor;  and  I 
knew  that  was  grand.  But  the  grandest  thing,  next  to  the  radiance 
that  flows  from  the  Almighty  Throne,  is  the  light  of  a  noble  and 
beautiful  life,  wrapping  itself  in  benediction  round  the  destinies  of 
men,  and  finding  its  home  in  the  bosom  of  the  everlasting  God." 

2.  From  Robert  Browning's  Home  Thoughts  from  Abroad: 

"  Oh,  to  be  in  England  now  that  April's  there. 
And  whoever  wakes  in  England  sees,  some  morning  unaware 
That  the  lowest  boughs  and  the  brushwood  sheaf 
Round  the  elm-tree  bole  are  in  tiny  leaf. 
While  the  chaffinch  sings  on  the  orchard  bough 
In  England  —  now! 
And  after  April,  when  May  follows 
And  the  white-throat  builds,  and  all  the  swallows! 
Hark,  where  my  blossomed  pear-tree  in  the  hedge 
Leans  to  the  field  and  scatters  on  the  clover 
Blossoms  and  dewdrops  —  at  the  bent  spray's  edge  — 
That's  the  wise  thrush:    he  sings  each  song  twice  over 
Lest  you  should  think  he  never  could  recapture 


READING  37 

The  first  fine  careless  rapture! 

And,  tho'  the  fields  look  rough  wdth  hoary  dew, 

All  will  be  gay  when  noontide  wakes  anew 

The  buttercups,  the  Httle  children's  dower 

—  Far  brighter  than  this  gaudy  melon-flower!" 

Exercise  VII.  —  Written  Review.     Be  able  to  write  in  class  on  any 
of  the  following  topics: 

1.  Value  of  Learning  to  Read. 

2.  Relation  between  Reading  and  Conversation. 

3.  General  Study  of  a  Reading  Lesson. 

4.  Phrasing. 

5.  Emphasis. 

6.  Color. 

7.  How  to  Hold  the  Thought. 

8.  How  to  Give  the  Thought. 


38  ORAL  ENGLISH 


READING   LESSON   I 

The  following  address  was  delivered  on  the  field  of  Gettysburg. 
To  speak  to  a  throng  of  people  out  in  the  open  air  is  the  most 
severe  test  to  which  the  voice  of  an  orator  can  be  subjected.  In  the 
reading  of  this  speech,  the  student  should  try  to  picture  the  situa- 
tion clearly  and  should  attempt  to  make  his  voice  reach  the  out- 
skirts of  the  crowd.  Remember  that  this  will  be  accomplished  not 
by  straining  the  throat  but  by  a  prolonged  and  resonant  tone. 

Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth  on  this 
continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedicated  to  the 
proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal. 

Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that 
nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure. 
We  are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to 
dedicate  a  portion  of  it  as  the  final  resting-place  of  those  who  here 
gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether  fitting 
and  proper  that  we  should  do  this. 

But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedicate  —  we  cannot  consecrate 
—  we  cannot  hallow  —  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead, 
who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  poor  power  to 
add  or  detract.  The  world  will  little  note  nor  long  remember  what 
we  say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  for  us, 
the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which 
they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  father 
for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us  — 
that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that 
cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion; 
that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in 
vain;  that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom; 
and  that  the  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people, 
shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 


READING  39 


READING    LESSON   II 

Poetry  differs  from  prose  in  that  il  is  the  expression  of  thought 
in  rhythmical  form.  As  the  true  poet  does  not  sacrifice  thought  to 
form,  so  the  true  reader  of  poetry  should  not  sacrifice  the  expression 
of  thought  to  the  beat  of  the  measure.  Most  young  readers,  and  some 
old  ones,  think  that  they  must  pause  at  the  end  of  each  line  of  poetry 
and  that  they  must  emphasize  words  at  regular  intervals.  This 
results  in  a  "sing-song,"  monotonous  rendition.  It  is  possible  to 
feel  oneself  and  to  convey  to  others  the  rhythmic  beauty  of  poetry 
and  yet  retain  a  natural  expression  of  the  thought.  To  accomplish 
this,  however,  one  must  give  even  more  care  than  in  prose  to  the 
division  of  the  words  into  thought  groups,  and  must  make  an  even 
more  earnest  attempt  to  see  the  pictures  and  to  realize  the  emotions. 
The  emotions  as  well  as  the  thought  in  the  following  selection  should 
be  carefully  analyzed.  Place  in  a  separate  sentence  the  thought  of 
each  of  the  following  groups  of  couplets:  1-2,  3-6,  7-8,  9-11,  12-15, 
16-18,  19-21,  22-25,  26-27,  28-30. 

Barbara  Frietchie 
By  John  Greenleaf  Whittier 

1.  Up  from  the  meadows  rich  with  corn. 
Clear  in  the  cool  September  morn, 

2.  The  clustered  spires  of  Frederick  stand 
Green-walled  by  the  hills  of  Maryland. 

3.  Round  about  them  orchards  sweep, 
Apple  and  peach  tree  fruited  deep, 

4.  Fair  as  the  garden  of  tlic  Lord 

To  the  eyes  of  the  famished  rebel  horde, 

5.  On  that  pleasant  morn  of  the  early  fall 
When  Lee  marched  over  the  mountain  wall, 


40  .         ORAL   ENGLISH 

6.  Over  the  mountains  winding  down, 
Horse  and  foot,  into  Frederick  town. 

7.  Forty  ilags  with  their  silver  stars, 
Forty  flags  with  their  crimson  bars, 

8.  Flapped  in  the  morning  winds;   the  sun 
Of  noon  looked  down,  and  saw  not  one. 

g.   Up  rose  old  Barbara  Frietchie  then, 
Bowed  with  her  fourscore  years  and  ten; 

10.  Bravest  of  all  in  Frederick  town, 

She  took  up  the  flag  the  men  hauled  down; 

11.  In  her  attic  window  the  staff  she  set. 
To  show  that  one  heart  was  loyal  yet. 

12.  Up  the  street  came  the  rebel  tread, 
Stonewall  Jackson  riding  ahead. 

13.  Under  his  slouched  hat  left  and  right 
He  glanced;  the  old  flag  met  his  sight. 

14.  "Halt!"  —  the  dust-brown  ranks  stood  fast. 
"Fire!"  —  out  blazed  the  rifle-blast. 

15.  It  shivered  the  window,  pane  and  sash; 
It  rent  the  banner  with  seam  and  gash. 

16.  Quick,  as  it  fell,  from  the  broken  staff 
Dame  Barbara  snatched  the  sflken  scarf. 

17.  She  leaned  far  out  on  the  window-sill. 
And  shook  it  forth  with  a  royal  will. 

18.  "Shoot,  if  you  must,  this  old  gray  head. 
But  spare  your  country's  flag,"  she  said. 


READING  41 

ig.   A  shade  of  sadness,  a  blush  of  shame, 
Over  the  face  of  the  leader  came; 

20.  The  nobler  nature  within  him  stirred 
To  Ufe  at  that  woman's  deed  and  word: 

21.  "Who  touches  a  hair  of  yon  gray  head 
Dies  like  a  dog!  March  on!"  he  said. 

22.  All  day  long  through  Frederick  street 
Sounded  the  tread  of  marching  feet. 

23.  All  day  long  that  free  flag  tost 
Over  the  heads  of  the  rebel  host. 

24.  Ever  its  torn  folds  rose  and  fell 

On  the  loyal  winds  that  loved  it  well; 

25.  And  through  the  hill-gaps  sunset  light 
Shone  over  it  with  a  warm  good-night. 

26.  Barbara  Frictchie's  work  is  o'er 

And  the  Rebel  rides  on  his  raids  no  more. 

27.  Honor  to  her!  and  let  a  tear 

Fall,  for  her  sake,  on  Stonewall's  bier. 

28.  Over  Barbara  Frietchie's  grave. 
Flag  of  Freedom  and  Union  wave! 

29.  Peace  and  order  and  beauty  draw 
Round  thy  symbol  of  light  and  law; 

30.  And  ever  the  stars  above  look  down 
On  thy  stars  below  in  Frederick  town! 


CHAPTER   IV 

DECLAMATION 

Introduction.  —  Declamation  is  memorized  reading. 
The  practice  of  declamation  is  another  step  in  the  direc- 
tion of  actual  public  speaking.  The  student  continues 
his  practice  in  the  use  of  the  voice  and  in  the  expression 
of  the  thoughts  of  others;  he  also  meets  new  difficulties 
which  are  similar  to  those  that  confront  a  speaker.  He 
cannot  look  at  a  book  or  manuscript;  he  must,  therefore, 
learn  to  face  his  audience  bravely.  His  hands  are  no 
longer  occupied  with  the  holding  of  a  book;  so  he  must 
learn  to  make  them  useful  in  other  ways. 

Since  declamation  is  memorized  reading,  it  is  very  nec- 
essary that  the  student  learn  to  read  a  selection  perfectly 
before  he  attempts  to  memorize  it.  If  he  does  not  do  so, 
he  will  memorize  with  wrong  methods  of  expression 
which  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  overcome. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i)  how  to  memorize 
a  selection  in  the  best  way;  (2)  how  to  be  well-poised 
before  an  audience;  and  (3)  how  to  use  the  body  as  a 
means  of  expression. 

I.   How  TO  Memorize 

Wrong  Method.  —  The  method  of  repeating  each  sen- 
tence until  it  goes  by  itself,  which  is  the  method  used  by 
most  students,  is  faulty  in  several  respects.  The  student 
who  memorizes  in  this  way  needs  frequent  prompting; 


decla:\iation  43 

for,  although  he  has  learned  each  sentence  separately,  he 
has  failed  to  estabhsh  connections  between  them.  He 
wastes  time,  also,  in  preparation,  for  his  mind  is  apt  to 
wander  while  his  tongue  is  repeating  the  words.  Again, 
he  is  very  likely  to  acquire  a  ''sing-song"  or  mechanical 
form  of  expression.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  he  repeats 
the  words  in  a  thoughtless  way;  whereas  the  secret  of 
good  expression,  as  set  forth  in  Chapter  III,  is  to  hold 
the  thought. 

Any  method  of  memorizing  is  defective  which  is  not 
based  upon  the  laws  that  govern  the  action  of  the  mind. 
The  three  most  important  laws  of  memory  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  law  of  association.  —  We  can  memorize  ideas 
more  easily  if  we  associate  them,  or  link  them  together. 

2.  The  law  of  intensity.  —  We  can  memorize  ideas  more 
quickly  if  our  minds  are  intense,  or  concentrated. 

3.  The  law  of  repetition.  —  We  can  memorize  ideas 
more  perfectly  if  we  repeat  them  often. 

It  is  evident  that  the  faulty  method  described  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  used  only  one  of  these  laws,  that  of 
repetition. 

The  Best  Method  Described.  —  The  student  should 
divide  the  thought  to  be  memorized  into  a  few  large 
groups,  not  more  than  three,  if  possible.  He  should  then 
choose  a  word  which  will  suggest  the  idea  of  each  group, 
placing  these  words  below  each  other  at  the  left  side  of  a 
sheet  of  paper,  and  drawing  a  brace  after  each.  He 
should  next  subdivide  these  large  groups  of  ideas  into 
smaller  groups,  not  more  than  three  in  each,  and  place 
after  each  brace  a  word  that  will  represent  the  thought 
of  the  group.  It  may  be  that  this  second  series  of  words 
will  represent  the  paragraph  thoughts.     If  so,  he  should 


44  ORAL  ENGLISH 

continue  this  method  of  subdividing  and  choosing  key 
words  until  he  has  chosen  a  word  for  each  sentence;  or, 
if  the  sentence  is  long,  a  word  for  each  clause.  If  possible, 
the  student  should  choose  a  word  that  is  actually  found 
in  the  selection  to  be  learned.  Again,  it  has  been  found 
that  verbs  and  adjectives  are  usually  more  suggestive  than 
nouns.  Not  more  than  three  words  should  follow  a 
brace,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  remembering  more 
than  three  words  in  a  list.  Moreover,  the  outhne  must  be 
so  arranged  that  the  ideas  suggested  by  the  words  which 
follow  a  brace  really  elaborate  on  the  idea  suggested  by 
the  word  which  precedes  the  brace.  This  last  point  is 
of  the  greatest  importance.  The  scattering  of  words  and 
braces  at  random  on  a  piece  of  paper  will  be  of  no  assist- 
ance whatever  in  the  process  of  memorizing.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  words  on  the  paper  must  represent  the  relation 
that  exists  between  the  ideas  in  the  selection,  and  this 
relation  must  exist  also  in  the  mind  of  the  student.  A 
word  outhne  representing  the  thought  of  the  Gettysburg 
Address  may  be  found  in  Exercise  II,  at  the  close  of  this 
chapter.  The  student  should  compare  it  at  this  point 
with  the  text  of  the  speech  itself. 

After  the  outline  has  been  completed,  the  student  should 
repeat  the  entire  selection  with  the  help  of  the  suggestive 
words.  If  he  cannot  express  the  thought  in  the  words  of 
the  text,  he  should  express  it  in  his  own  words;  that  is,  he 
should  force  himself  to  get  the  thought  before  he  gets  the 
exact  words.  He  should  then  turn  to  the  words  of  the 
author  and  look  up  those  sentences  or  phrases  which  he 
has  failed  to  remember.  This  process  should  be  repeated 
until  he  is  able  to  recite  the  selection  correctly  with  the 
help  of  the  suggestive  words.     It  should   be  continued 


DECLAMATION  45 

further  until  he  is  able  to  give  the  text  perfectly  without 
the  use  of  the  outline.  Finally,  he  should  write  the  word 
outline  from  memory. 

Threefold  Value  of  the  Method.  —  That  the  method 
is  of  value  has  been  attested  by  the  experience  of  hundreds 
of  high-school  students  who  have  used  it  in  the  past  ten 
years.  Of  all  these,  not  one  has  needed  the  services 
of  a  prompter.  This  fact  is  evidence  that  the  method,  if 
followed  conscientiously,  will  make  one  proof  against  stage 
fright.  This  terror  of  young  speakers  is  a  calamity  that 
results  from  the  attempt  to  memorize  words  without 
having  memorized  the  arrangement  of  the  thought.  The 
tongue  goes  on  while  the  mind  is  elsewhere.  Suddenly, 
the  tongue  makes  a  slip  and  the  mind  realizes  that  it  is 
"  lost."  The  method  described  prevents  this  condition 
for  two  reasons:  (i)  the  student,  in  making  an  outline, 
has  used  the  law  of  association,  or  has  Hnked  the  ideas 
together  in  groups;  (2)  during  the  preparation,  he  has 
expressed  the  thought  in  his  own  words  whenever  the 
words  of  the  author  failed  to  come  to  his  mind.  Conse- 
quently, if  the  exact  words  escape  him  on  the  platform, 
he  is  able  to  supply  his  own  words  and  to  continue  the 
expression  of  the  thought. 

Again,  the  method  has  proved  to  be  a  saver  of  time. 
This  follows  from  the  fact  that  it  requires  concentration 
of  mind.  When  we  learn  a  selection  sentence  by  sentence, 
our  minds  frequently  wander;  but,  when  we  talk  from  an 
outline,  we  fix  our  minds  more  firmly  on  the  thought 
and  are  more  likely  to  exercise  our  imaginations  in  vividly 
realizing  the  pictures.  In  so  doing,  we  use  the  law  of 
intensity. 

This  habit  of  keeping  the  mind  upon  the  thought  at 


46  ORAL  ENGLISH 

the  same  time  that  the  words  are  being  learned  leads  to 
the  third  and  most  important  merit  of  the  method.  It 
enables  the  student  to  retain  the  conversational  style  of 
delivery  which  he  used  when  he  learned  to  read  the  selec- 
tion. Students  frequently  lose  this  by  the  old  method, 
and  acquire  a  monotonous,  "  sing-song  "  tone. 

II.   Poise 

Poise  may  be  defined  as  dignity,  ease,  and  grace  of 
bearing.  It  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance  to 
both  declaimer  and  speaker.  We  shall  discuss  it  under 
three  heads:  (i)  at  the  beginning  of  the  speech,  (2)  during 
the  speech,  and  (3)  at  the  close  of  the  speech. 

At  the  Beginning.  —  As  the  speaker  leaves  his  chair 
and  takes  his  place  on  the  platform,  he  should  maintain 
an  attitude  which  is  at  once  dignified  and  courteous.  An 
erect  and  sprightly  carriage  will  create  a  favorable  first 
impression  on  the  audience  and  will  also  help  to  give  the 
speaker  confidence  in  himself.  At  the  same  time,  his 
bearing  should  indicate  a  courteous  acknowledgment  of 
the  fact  that  his  auditors  are  conferring  a  favor  upon  him 
by  their  presence  and  attention. 

The  speaker  should  not  be  in  haste  to  open  his  speech, 
but  should  first  be  sure  that  he  has  the  attention  of  every 
one  in  his  audience.  A  young  speaker,  because  of  lack  of 
composure,  is  very  apt  to  begin  his  speech  as  soon  as  he 
reaches  his  place  on  the  platform.  The  audience  has 
yielded  its  attention  to  a  previous  number  on  the  program 
and  each  member  wishes  to  applaud,  to  change  his  posi- 
tion, or  to  make  a  remark  to  his  neighbor.  As  a  result, 
the  audience  fails  to  hear  the  first  words  or  sentences  of 
the  speaker  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  is  marred. 


decla:\iation  47 

During  the  Speech.  —  Although  the  speaker,  through- 
out the  speech,  should  keep  his  whole  body  under  perfect 
control,  this  does  not  mean  that  he  should  remain  rigidly 
in  the  same  position.  He  should  turn  his  body  from  side 
to  side,  so  that  he  may  address  his  remarks  first  to  one 
part  of  the  audience  and  then  to  another.  Occasionally, 
but  not  too  frequently,  he  should  step  forward  or  back 
or  to  another  portion  of  the  platform.  These  movements 
seem  most  natural  when  they  occur  at  a  transition  or 
break  in  the  thought. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  members  of  a  speaker's 
body  are  his  hands.  The  hands  of  the  accomplished 
speaker  assist  his  voice  in  emphasizing  and  illustrating 
his  thought,  while  those  of  the  untrained  speaker  merely 
serve  to  betray  the  nervous  tension  under  which  he  labors. 
The  inexperienced  speaker  tries  to  put  his  hands  every- 
where but  in  the  right  place.  He  has  a  strong  desire  to 
lock  them  behind  his  back,  a  position  which  has  a  tendency 
to  throw  the  head  forward,  narrow  the  chest,  and  make 
the  shoulders  appear  less  square.  If  this  is  forbidden,  he 
will  try  to  put  his  hands  in  his  pockets.  If  he  has  some- 
thing of  the  swagger  attitude,  he  puts  them  in  his  trousers 
pockets;  otherwise,  he  prefers  his  coat  pockets.  A  girl 
will  try  to  hide  her  hands  in  her  sweater  or  coat  pockets, 
or,  lacking  these,  she  will  play  with  a  button  or  a  chain. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  safe  rule  that  a  speaker  should 
do  nothing  with  his  hands  that  will  serve  to  call  attention 
to  them.  While  it  is  not  bad  form  to  rest  the  hand  quietly 
on  a  desk  or  table,  if  one  is  conveniently  near,  or  to 
hold  a  card  or  paper  in  the  hand,  if  notes  are  necessary, 
many  situations  will  occur  in  real  life  when  the  speaker 
cannot   be  sui)j)licd.  with    these   aids   to   composure,  and 


48  ORAL  ENGLISH 

he  must,  therefore,  in  his  practice  work,  prepare  for  such 
occasions. 

The  student  will  be  most  successful  in  attaining  an  ap- 
pearance of  ease  if  he  will  endeavor,  while  holding  the  chest 
firm  and  high,  to  relax  every  other  portion  of  his  body. 
The  hands  will  then  hang  easily  by  the  sides  except  when 
they  are  being  used  to  emphasize  or  illustrate  the  thought. 

Let  us  remember  that  stiffness  of  any  kind,  whether  of 
the  whole  body  or  of  the  hands,  is  caused  mainly  by 
self-consciousness.  The  speaker  may  rid  himself  of  this 
handicap  by  adopting  the  attitude  of  one  who  desires 
to  communicate  ideas.  He  should  assume  earnestness  if 
he  does  not  feel  it.  In  this  way,  many  of  the  difficulties 
will  disappear. 

At  the  Close.  —  The  speaker,  in  closing,  should  incline 
his  head  slightly  toward  his  audience.  This  is  a  silent 
but  necessary  recognition  of  the  courtesy  of  his  hearers. 
The  words  "I  thank  you"  are  necessary  only  when  one 
has  asked  the  privilege  of  addressing  an  audience  for  the 
purpose  of  making  an  announcement,  or  for  other  reasons. 

III.    Gesture 

Its  Larger  Meaning.  —  The  term  gesture  should  apply 
not  only  to  motions  of  the  hand,  but  also  to  all  those  bodily 
movements  which  assist  in  the  expression  of  thought.  If 
one  is  really  in  earnest,  or  if  he  has  caught  the  spirit  of 
the  author,  that  fact  will  speak  in  the  eye  and  cheek  and 
will  energize  the  whole  body.  It  was  said  of  Wendell 
Phillips,  one  of  the  finest  of  extemporaneous  speakers, 
"His  pure  and  eloquent  blood  spoke  in  his  cheek,  and  so 
distinctly  wrought  that  one  might  almost  say  his  body 
thought." 


DECLAMATION  49 

The  Impulse  to  Gesture.  —  All  true  gesture  is  the  result 
of  impulse.  One  should  never  practice  gestures  for  a 
given  declamation,  for  the  results  are  likely  to  be  stiff 
and  mechanical.  It  has  been  well  said,  "Earnestness  is 
the  best  schoolmaster  of  gesture."  If  one  is  really  in 
earnest,  his  gestures  will  be  so  inevitable  that  they  will 
scarcely  be  noticed  by  the  audience.  The  speaker  should 
distinguish,  however,  between  the  impulse  to  express 
thought  and  the  mere  excitement  of  the  occasion.  For 
instance,  young  debaters  sometimes  argue  with  their 
hands  and  their  heads.  Some  speakers  of  large  experience, 
even,  allow  themselves  to  acquire  a  characteristic,  habit- 
ual, unmeaning  gesture  which  detracts  from  rather  than 
adds  to  the  force  of  the  thought  which  they  are  presenting. 

Dramatic  Gesture.  —  Gestures  in  dramatic  declama- 
tions should  be  suggestive  rather  than  imitative.  Most 
students,  when  they  undertake  dramatic  representation, 
overdo  it.  They  try  to  imitate  that  which  they  should 
leave  to  the  imagination  of  the  audience.  As  a  result, 
the  listeners,  instead  of  entering  into  the  spirit  of  the  scene 
described,  see  only  a  young  person  wildly  gesticulating 
before  them.  A.  E.  Phillips  gives  the  following  excellent 
rule:  "Leave  to  the  listener's  imagination  everything 
which  the  speaker's  imitation  would  fail  to  fully  convey, 
or  would  misconvey,  or  overconvey,  or  which  in  itself  is 
self-evident,  and  as  a  corollary  to  this  —  decrease  imita- 
tion and  increase  suggestion  in  proportion  to  the  culture 
of  the  listener." 

Professor  Hiram  Corson  of  Cornell  University  goes  even 
farther  in  his  condemnation  of  extravagant  gesture. 
He  says:  "Reading  is  not  acting.  It  is  the  acting  which 
usually  accomi)anies  the  reading  or  recitation  of  the  pro- 


50  ORAL  ENGLISH 

fessional  elocutionist  which  cultivated  people  especially 
dislike.  When  they  wish  to  see  acting,  they  prefer  going 
to  the  theater.  When  they  listen  to  reading,  they  want 
serious  interpretative  vocalization ;  only  that  and  nothing 
more  is  necessary,  unless  it  be  a  spontaneous  and  graceful 
movement  of  the  hands,  occasionally,  such  as  one  makes 
in  animated  conversation." 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
how  to  memorize  a  selection  in  the  best  way;  (2)  how  to 
be  well  poised  before  an  audience;  and  (3)  how  to  use 
our  bodies  as  a  means  of  expression. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Declamation 

Introduction. 

I.  Declamation,  a  step  in  the  direction  of  public  speaking. 
11.   Necessity  of  learning  to  read  a  selection  first. 

III.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.    Method  of  memorizing. 

A.  Wrong  method. 

I .    Three  ways  in  which  it  is  faulty ;   not  based  upon 
the  laws  of  memory. 

B.  Best  method  described. 

1.  Making  an  outline. 

2.  Use  of  the  outhne. 

C.  Threefold  value  of  the  method. 

1.  Stage  fright. 

2.  Saving  of  time. 

3.  Enables  one   to    retain   conversational    style   of 

delivery. 

II.  Poise  —  its  meaning. 

A.    At  the  beginning  of  a  speech. 

1.  Combination  of  dignity  and  courtesy. 

2.  Fault  of  beginning  hastily. 


DECLAMATION 


51 


II.        B.    During  the  speech. 

1.  Change  of  position. 

2.  Importance  of  the  hands. 

(a)    Contrast  between  those  of  the  trained  and 
those  of  the  untrained  speaker, 
(i)    Faults  of  the  inexperienced  speaker. 

(h)    A  safe  rule. 

(c)    The  best  cure. 

3.  Evil  and  cure  of  self-consciousness. 
C.    At  the  close. 

III.    Gesture. 

A.  Its  larger  meaning  —  Wendell  Phillips. 

B.  The  impulse  to  gesture. 

1.  Practice. versus  earnestness. 

2.  Gestures  caused  by  nervous  excitement. 

C.  Dramatic  gesture  —  suggestive. 

1.  Rule  of  A.  E.  Phillips. 

2.  Quotation  from  Professor  Hiram  Corson. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  as  far  as  the  topic  "Poise,"  and 
be  able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Memorize  the  Gettysburg  Address  according  to 
the  method  described  in  this  chapter.  Use  the  following  outline, 
substituting  for  any  word  another  which  may  be  more  suggestive  to 
you: 


Fathers  —  Now 
Dedicate 
Met' 


Fitting 
/  Struggled 
L^'^^^'^i  World 

Advanced 


Be  dedicated  * 


Take 


Gave 
Remaining  jj^^^^j^.^^  Birfh 

Perish 


I 


Exercise  III.  —  The  class  should  be  divided  into  four  sections. 
One  of  the  following  selections  in  Chapter  III  may  be  assigned  to  each 


52  ORAL  ENGLISH 

section:   Ex.  Ill,  2;   Ex.  IV,  2;   Ex.  V,  2;   Ex.  VI,  i.     Make  a  word 
outline  of  the  selection  assigned  to  you  and  memorize  it. 

Exercise  IV.  —  The  method  of  memorizing  described  in  this  chap- 
ter may  be  applied,  not  only  to  the  memorizing  of  a  speech,  but  also 
to  stories  and  poems,  or  to  any  choice  bit  of  literature  which  one  may 
wish  to  commit.  The  material  in  a  story  may  be  grouped  under  such 
headings  as  Setting,  Incidents,  and  Conclusion.  Compare  the  fol- 
lowing outline  with  the  poem,  Barbara  Frietchie  (page  39),  which  is 
really  a  story  in  rhyme. 

,       .  r^      •       /     ^\  1  Town  (1-2) 

Introduction,     betting  (i-oj  <   „  i-        /     ^\        • 

{  Surroundings  (3-6) 

Initial  Incident  (7-8) 

,-       T     •  ,  f  Act  (9-11) 

■n.    ,     /         ,      Leading  incident     <   „  ,  , 

Body  (7-21)  <!  I   Response  (12-15) 

.    T     -J        J  Act  (16-18) 
Climactic  Incident  -,   „  ,  . 

\_  Response  (19-21) 

^       ,     .       ,  .J  Result  (22-25)  (  r-1.  f  c       \ 

Conclusion  (22-30)  <   ,,  ^     ,.         /,       J  Change  (26-27) 
\  Reflections  (26-30)  I  p^^^^^^^3_^^^ 

This  outline  serves  to  reveal  the  general  plan  of  the  poem;  it  is 
necessary,  however,  in  poetry,  to  suggest  the  details  by  a  somewhat 
different  method  from  that  used  in  prose.  The  rhyme  and  meter  of 
a  poem  make  it  necessary  to  memorize  the  exact  words.  The  thought 
is  often  so  transposed  that,  if  the  suggestive  words  were  placed  in  their 
logical  relation,  as  in  the  outline  for  the  Gettysburg  speech,  they 
would  be  of  very  little  assistance  in  suggesting  the  exact  form  of  the 
thought.  It  has  been  found  helpful,  therefore,  to  choose  one  word 
(a  verb  if  possible)  from  each  line  and  place  it  on  the  page  so  that  it 
represents  to  the  eye  its  position  in  the  original  line  of  the  poem.  The 
method  described  above,  of  reciting  the  thoughts  from  the  suggestive 
words,  may  then  be  used.  The  following  is  an  example  of  the  way  in 
which  the  first  six  couplets  of  Barbara  Frietchie  may  be  outlined. 


DECLAMATION 

meadows 

Town 

September 

(1-2)     " 

spires 
Green-wailed 

Introduction. 

Setting 

(i-6) 

Surroundings  • 

Fair 

sweep 
fruited 

famished 

(3-6) 

pleasant 

marched 

winding 

Horse 

53 


Complete  the  outline  on  Barbara  Friekhic  and  begin  the  work  of 
memorizing  the  poem. 

Exercise  V.  —  Complete  the  memorizing  of  Barbara  Frietchie. 

Exercise  VI.  —  Read  the  remainder  of  the  chapter  and  be  able 
to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  VII.  —  Review  the  story  of  Barbara  Frietchie.  Tell  it 
naturally,  but  let  your  body  as  well  as  your  voice  have  a  part  in  the 
telling. 

Exercise  VIII.  —  Written  Revinv.  Be  able  to  write  in  class  on 
any  of  the  following  topics: 

Old  Method  of  Memorizing. 

Laws  of  Memory. 

Description  of  the  Best  Method  of  Memorizing. 

Threefold  \'alue  of  the  Best  Method. 

Poise. 

Gesture. 


I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 


54  ORAL    ENGLISH 


READING  LESSON   III 

Review  the  instructions  for  study  in  Exercise  III,  Chapter  III 
(page  ss). 

The  speech  which  follows  was  deKvered  by  Charles  Dickens  at 
a  dinner  given  in  connection  with  the  Anniversary  Festival  of  the 
Hospital  for  Sick  Children,  Feb.  9,  1858.1 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  —  It  is  one  of  my  rules  in  life  not  to  believe 
a  man  who  may  happen  to  tell  me  that  he  feels  no  interest  in  children. 
I  hold  myself  bound  to  this  principle  by  all  kind  consideration,  be- 
cause I  know,  as  we  all  must,  that  any  heart  which  could  reaUy 
toughen  its  affections  and  sympathies  against  those  dear  httle  people 
must  be  wanting  in  so  many  humanizing  experiences  of  innocence 
and  tenderness  as  to  be  quite  an  unsafe  monstrosity  among  men.  I 
suppose  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  we,  who  come  together  in 
the  name  of  children  and  for  the  sake  of  children,  acknowledge  that 
we  have  an  interest  in  them.  Nevertheless,  it  is  likely  that  even  we 
are  not  without  our  experience  now  and  then  of  spoilt  children.  I  do 
not  mean  of  our  own  spoilt  children,  because  nobody's  own  children 
ever  were  spoilt,  but  I  mean  the  disagreeable  children  of  our  particu- 
lar friends.  We  know  what  it  is  when  these  children  won't  go  to  bed; 
we  know  how  they  prop  their  eyehds  open  with  their  forefingers  when 
they  will  sit  up;  how,  when  they  become  fractious,  they  say  aloud 
that  they  don't  like  us,  and  our  nose  is  too  long,  and  why  don't  we 
go?  And  we  are  perfectly  acquainted  with  those  kicking  bundles 
which  are  carried  off  at  last,  protesting. 

But,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  the  spoilt  children  whom  I  have  to 
present  to  you  after  this  dinner  of  to-day  are  not  of  this  class.  I  have 
glanced  at  these  for  the  easier  and  lighter  introduction  of  another,  a 
ver>'  different,  a  far  more  numerous,  and  a  far  more  serious  class.  The 
spoilt  children  whom  I  must  show  you  are  the  spoilt  children  of  the 
poor  in  this  great  city,  the  children  who  are,  every  year,  forever  and 
ever  irrevocably  spoilt  out  of  this  breathing  life  of  ours  by  tens  of 
thousands,  but  who  may  in  vast  numbers  be  preserved  if  you,  assisting 
and  not  contravening  the  ways  of  Providence,  will  help  to  save  them. 
1  Adapted  from  The  Speech  fur  Special  Occasions,  by  Knapp  and 
French,  pp.  21-31. 


READING    LESSON    III  55 

Some  years  ago,  being  in  Scotland,  I  went  wath  one  of  the  most 
humane  members  of  the  humane  medical  profession  on  a  morning 
tour  among  some  of  the  worst-lodged  inhabitants  of  the  old  town  of 
Edinburgh.  Our  way  lay  from  one  to  another  of  the  most  wretched 
dwellings  reeking  with  horrible  odors,  shut  from  the  sky,  shut  out 
from  the  air,  mere  pits  and  dens.  In  a  room  in  one  of  these  places, 
where  there  was  an  empty  porridge  pot  on  the  cold  hearth,  with  a 
ragged  woman  and  some  ragged  children  crouching  on  the  bare  ground 
near  it,  —  there  lay,  in  an  old  egg- box  which  the  mother  had  begged 
from  a  shop,  a  httle,  feeble,  wasted,  wan,  sick  child,  with  his  little 
bright,  attentive  eyes  looking  steadily  at  us.  He  seldom  cried,  the 
mother  said;  he  seldom  complained;  "he  lay  there,  seemin'  .to 
woonder  what  it  was  a'  aboot."  God  knows,  I  thought,  as  I  stood 
looking  at  him,  he  had  his  reasons  for  wondering  —  reasons  for  won- 
dering how  it  could  possibly  come  to  be  that  he  lay  there,  left  alone, 
feeble  and  full  of  pain,  when  he  ought  to  have  been  as  bright  and  as 
brisk  as  the  birds  that  never  got  near  him  —  reasons  for  wondering 
how  he  came  to  be  left  there,  as  if  there  were  no  crowds  of  healthy 
and  happy  children  playing  on  the  grass  under  the  summer's  sun 
within  a  stone's  throw  of  him;  as  if  there  were  no  bright  moving  sea 
on  the  other  side  of  the  great  hill  overhanging  the  city.  There  he 
lay  looking  at  us,  saying,  in  his  silence,  more  pathetically  than  I  have 
ever  heard  anything  said  by  an  orator  in  my  life,  "Will  you  please 
to  tell  me  what  this  means,  strange  man?"  Many  a  poor  child, 
sick  and  neglected,  I  have  seen  since  that  time  in  this  London;  but 
at  such  times  1  have  seen  my  poor  little  drooping  friend  in  his  egg- 
box;  and  he  has  always  addressed  his  dumb  speech  to  me  and  I  have 
always  founfl  him  wondering  what  it  meant,  and  why,  in  the  name  of 
a  gracious  God,  such  things  should  be. 

Now,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  such  things  need  not  be,  and  will  not 
be,  if  this  company,  which  is  a  drop  of  the  life-blood  of  the  great 
compassionate  public  heart,  will  only  accept  the  means  of  rescue  and 
prevention  which  it  is  mine  to  offer.  Within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of 
this  pkice  where  I  speak,  stands  a  courtly  old  house,  where  once,  no 
doubt,  blooming  children  were  born,  and  grew  up  to  be  men  and 
women.  In  the  airy  wards  into  which  the  old  state  drawing  rooms 
and  the  family  bedchambers  of  lh;il  house  are  now  converted  are 
such  Httle  patients  that   the  attendant  nurses   look  like  reclaimed 


56  ORAL  ENGLISH 

giantesses,  and  the  kind  medical  practitioner  like  an  amiable  Chris- 
tian ogre.  Grouped  about  the  little  low  tables  in  the  center  of  the 
rooms  are  such  tiny  convalescents  that  they  seem  to  be  playing  at 
having  been  ill.  On  the  dolls'  beds  are  such  diminutive  creatures 
that  each  poor  sufferer  is  supplied  with  its  tray  of  toys;  and,  looking 
round,  you  may  see  how  the  little,  tired,  flushed  cheek  has  toppled 
over  half  the  brute  creation  on  its  way  into  the  ark,  or  how  one  httle 
dimpled  arm  mowed  down  —  as  I  saw  myself  —  the  whole  tin  soldiery 
of  Europe.  On  the  walls  of  these  rooms  are  graceful,  pleasant,  bright, 
childish  pictures.  At  the  beds'  heads  are  pictures  of  the  figure  of 
Him  who  was  once  a  child  himself,  and  a  poor  one.  Besides  these 
little  creatures  on  the  beds,  you  may  learn  in  that  place  that  the 
number  of  small  out-patients  brought  to  that  house  for  relief  is  no 
fewer  than  ten  thousand  in  the  compass  of  one  single  year.  In  the 
printed  papers  of  this  same  hospital  you  may  read  with  what  a  gener- 
ous earnestness  the  highest  and  wisest  members  of  the  medical  pro- 
fession testify  to  the  great  need  of  it;  to  the  immense  difficulty  of 
treating  children  in  the  same  hospital  with  grown-up  people,  by 
reason  of  their  different  ailments  and  requirements;  to  the  vast 
amount  of  pain  that  will  be  assuaged,  and  of  life  that  will  be  saved, 
through  this  hospital.  Lastly,  the  visitor  to  this  children's  hospital, 
reckoning  up  the  number  of  its  beds,  will  find  himself  perforce  obliged 
to  stop  at  very  little  over  thirty;  and  will  learn  with  sorrow  and  sur- 
prise, that  even  that  small  number,  so  forlornly,  so  miserably  diminu- 
tive, compared  with  this  vast  London,  cannot  possibly  be  maintained, 
unless  the  hospital  be  made  better  known;  I  limit  myself  to  saying 
better  known,  because  I  will  not  believe  that  in  a  Christian  com- 
munity of  fathers  and  mothers,  and  brothers  and  sisters,  it  can  fail, 
being  better  known,  to  be  well  and  richly  endowed. 

This  is  the  pathetic  case  I  have  put  to  you,  not  only  on  behalf  of 
the  thousands  of  children  who  annually  die  in  this  great  city,  but 
also  on  behalf  of  the  thousands  of  children  who  live  half  developed, 
racked  with  preventable  pain,  shorn  of  their  natural  capacity  for 
health  and  enjoyment.  If  these  innocent  creatures  cannot  move 
you  for  themselves,  how  can  I  possibly  hope  to  move  you  in  their 
name?  The  most  delightful  paper,  the  most  charming  essay,  which 
the  tender  imagination  of  Charles  Lamb  conceived,  represents  him 
as  sitting  by  his  fireside  on  a  winter  night  telling  stories  to  his  own 


READING    LESSON    III  57 

dear  children,  and  delighting  in  their  society,  until  he  suddenly  comes 
to  his  old,  solitary,  bachelor  self,  and  finds  that  they  were  but  dream- 
children  who  might  have  been,  but  never  were.'  The  dream-children 
whom  I  would  now  raise,  if  I  could,  before  every  one  of  you,  according 
to  your  various  circumstances,  should  be  the  dear  child  you  love, 
the  dearer  child  you  have  lost,  the  child  you  might  have  had,  the 
child  you  certainly  have  been.  Each  of  these  dream-children  should 
say  to  you,  "Help  this  httle  suppliant  in  my  name!  Oh,  help  it  for 
my  sake!"  Well!  And  immediately  awaking,  you  should  find  your- 
selves in  the  Freemasons'  Hall,  happily  arrived  at  the  end  of  a  rather 
long  speech,  drinking  "Prosperity  to  the  Hospital  for  Sick  Children," 
and  thoroughly  resolved  that  it  shall  flourish. 

'  The  people  whom  Dickens  addressed  probably  knew  that  Charles 
Lamb,  although  of  a  cheerful  and  loving  disposition,  had  never  married 
because  he  wished  to  devote  himself  to  the  care  of  a  sister  who  had 
periodical  attacks  of  insanity. 


PART  II  — COMPOSITION 
CHAPTER   V 

A    SPEAKER'S   USE    OF   THE   FOUR   FORMS    OF   DISCOURSE 

Introduction.  —  Part  I  of  this  text  has  dealt  with  the 
subject  of  dehvery.  The  student  has  been  given  practice 
in  the  delivery  of  the  thoughts  of  others  in  order  that, 
having  partially  overcome  timidity,  awkwardness,  and 
vocal  defects,  he  might  be  better  able  to  deliver  speeches 
of  his  own  composition. 

Part  II  deals  with  the  art  of  composition.  It  aims  to 
give  the  student  an  insight  into  the  purposes  of  the  speaker 
and  into  the  methods  by  which  these  purposes  can  be 
attained  most  effectively. 

In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i)  that,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  a  speaker  has  persuasion  as  his  object; 
(2)  that,  in  the  accomplishment  of  his  purpose,  he  is 
likely  to  use  all  of  the  four  forms  of  discourse;  and  (3)  that 
he  weaves  them  into  a  very  definite  plan.  The  points 
discussed  are  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  speech  of 
Dickens,  the  text  of  which  is  given  in  Reading  Lesson  III. 

I.   The  Main  Object  of  Speech 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  a  speaker  has  persuasion  as 
his  object;  that  is,  he  wishes  to  lead  others  to  believe,  to 
feel,  and  to  act  as  he  thinks  they  ought  to  believe,  feel,  and 
act.  The  Honorable  James  Bryce,  for  several  years  am- 
bassador from  England  to  the  United  States,  and  himself 
an  able  speaker,  says  in  his  Hints  on  Public  Speaking 


THE  FOUR  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  59 

that  "  the  two  ends  (or  purposes)  of  speaking  are  to 
persuade  and  to  delight." 

To  Delight  is  Rarely  the  Sole  Purpose.  —  When  we  con- 
sider the  different  sorts  of  occasions  upon  which  speeches 
are  delivered,  we  find  that  very  few  are  made  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  giving  pleasure.  For  instance,  a  story  may  be 
told  to  a  group  gathered  about  a  campfire;  or  one  who 
has  traveled  may  relate  his  experiences  in  the  form  of  a 
lecture,  or  travel-talk.  These  are  the  most  important  of 
the  longer  speeches  which  aim  merely  at  entertainment. 

There  are  also  certain  shorter  speeches  which  are 
made  on  social  occasions:  for  example,  a  speech  should 
accompany  the  presentation  of  a  gift  to  a  favorite  teacher 
or  leader;  a  distinguished  visitor  or  a  convention  of  dele- 
gates must  be  received  by  a  few  words  of  welcome;  or 
toasts  are  called  for  at  the  close  of  a  banquet. 

Persuasiveness  in  Great  Demand.  —  Although  occa- 
sions such  as  those  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
are  decidedly  important,  they  are  few  in  the  life  of  the 
average  man.  On  the  other  hand,  situations  which  de- 
mand persuasiveness  are  almost  innumerable.  Such  occa- 
sions are  constantly  arising  in  the  business  world.  The 
salesman,  from  the  ordinary  peddler  up  to  the  manager  of 
a  corporation,  makes  it  his  daily  business  to  induce  some 
one  to  transfer  money  from  his  pocket  to  the  salesman's. 

One  cannot  belong  to  an  organization  of  any  kind  without 
realizing  the  value  of  persuasive  speaking.  It  may  be  the 
merchant  in  the  chamber  of  commerce,  the  farmer  in  his 
grange,  or  the  citizen  in  his  mass  meeting,  lodge,  or  club. 
Each  is  trying  to  arouse  others  to  belief  and  action.  Even 
the  high-school  student  finds  use  for  his  persuasive  ability 
when  he  rallies  his  fellow  students  to  the  football  game, 


6o  ORAL  ENGLISH 

when  he  solicits  their  subscriptions  to  the  school  paper,  or 
when  he  urges  their  support  for  his  favorite  candidate. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  man  in  public  life.  The  lawyer 
seeks  to  move  a  jury;  the  clergyman  tries  to  convince  men 
of  the  value  of  righteousness;  the  politician  talks  to  gain 
votes  for  his  policy  or  party. 

In  view  of  all  these  facts,  it  would  seem  that  Plato  was 
right  when  he  defined  the  art  of  public  speech  as  "the  art 
of  ruling  the  minds  of  men." 

Union  of  Both  Aims.  —  The  fact  that  persuasion  is  so 
frequently  the  chief  aim  of  speech  should  not,  however, 
lead  us  to  ignore  the  great  value  of  making  our  speeches 
delightful.  In  fact,  we  are  much  more  likely  to  succeed 
in  persuading  if  we  can,  at  the  same  time,  give  pleasure. 
Doubtless  if  we  had  been  present  at  the  London  dinner 
and  heard  Dickens'  speech,  we  should  have  been  very 
wilHng  to  contribute  to  his  hospital  fund  and  we  should 
also  have  been  very  wiUing  to  admit  that  his  speech  had 
given  us  pleasure. 

II.   Use  of  the  Four  Forms  of  Discourse 

When  we  study  the  method  by  which  Dickens  ob- 
tained his  result,  we  find  that  he  used  all  of  the  four 
forms  of  discourse.  All  discourse,  or  composition,  has  been 
separated  into  four  divisions  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  each  is  used. 

Description  and  Narration.  —  These  two  forms  of  dis- 
course are  used  for  the  purpose  of  appealing  to  the  feelings. 
Description  arouses  feeling  because  it  makes  the  hearer 
or  reader  see  a  picture.  If  the  picture  is  beautiful,  it 
awakens  admiration;  if  ugly,  it  creates  repulsion;  if 
pathetic,  it  causes  a  feeling  of  sadness.     Narration,  or 


THE   FOUR   FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  6i 

story-telling,  goes  farther  than  description  and  paints  the 
picture  of  a  series  of  events.  These  events  are  so  arranged 
as  to  excite  the  reader's  interest  and  put  him  in  sympathy 
with  the  characters  involved  in  the  story. 

Dickens  painted  vivid  pictures  of  the  little  children 
who  needed  help.  In  this  way,  he  made  his  hearers  feel 
like  subscribing  to  his  hospital  fund.  The  third  para- 
graph of  his  speech  may  be  considered  either  as  a  descrip- 
tion or  as  a  story.  If  we  look  at  it  from  one  point  of  view, 
he  seems  to  be  describing  a  poor  hovel  in  Edinburgh,  with 
its  cold  hearth  and  hungry,  ragged  occupants.  The 
central  figure  in  this  picture  is  the  httle  sick  baby  in  the 
old  egg-box.  From  another  point  of  view,  he  is  teUing 
the  story  of  his  own  visit  to  this  wretched  dwelling:  how 
he  came  to  go;  how  the  mother  secured  the  cradle;  and 
what  the  baby  seemed  to  say.  It  is  of  little  importance 
for  us  to  decide  whether  it  is  a  description  or  a  narration. 
Viewed  in  either  light,  it  awakens  our  sympathy  and  so 
helps  Dickens  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 

Exposition  and  Argument.  —  These  two  forms  of  dis- 
course are  used  to  appeal  to  the  understanding.  Exposition 
aims  to  explain  something,  or  to  make  it  clear  to  the  mind. 
Argument  seeks  to  convince  the  hearer  or  reader  that  a  cer- 
tain fact  is  true  or  that  a  certain  course  of  action  is  right. 

Dickens  used  these  two  forms  of  discourse  when  he 
tried  to  show  that  the  best  way  to  help  these  poor  little 
ones  was  to  assist  in  maintaining  the  hospital.  In  the 
latter  part  of  paragraph  4,  he  stated:  (i)  that  there  were 
ten  thousand  out-patients  brought  to  the  hospital  every 
year;  (2)  that  the  physicians  testified  that  it  was  much 
better  for  children  to  be  placed  in  a  separate  hospital; 
and  (3)  that  there  were  but  thirty  beds  in  which  to  accom- 


62  ORAL  ENGLISH 

modate  the  sick  children  of  the  vast  city  of  London. 
This  portion  of  his  speech  may  be  regarded  as  either  an 
exposition  or  an  argument.  To  one  who  was  already 
interested  in  the  Children's  Hospital,  he  would  seem  to  be 
merely  explaining  its  needs.  To  those  who  were  indif- 
ferent or  opposed  to  the  project,  his  facts  would  have  the 
nature  of  proof.  Whichever  view  we  take  of  it,  we  see 
that  this  portion  of  his  discourse  appeals  to  the  under- 
standing rather  than  to  the  feelings. 

Necessity  for  All  Forms.  —  Any  persuasive  speech 
which  is  really  effective  is  likely  to  contain  all  four  of 
these  forms.  The  explanations  and  arguments  usually 
form  the  solid  framework  upon  which  the  speaker  builds, 
while  short  descriptions  and  stories  furnish  the  ornamen- 
tation. If  the  two  former  predominate,  the  speech  is 
apt  to  be  heavy  and  lacking  in  color  and  interest;  if  the 
two  latter  predominate,  the  speech  may  lack  form  and 
substance.  Dickens  seems  to  have  provided  a  very 
judicious  mixture.  If  he  had  given  his  listeners  only  the 
pictures  and  the  stories,  they  would  have  been  interested 
in  the  children,  it  is  true,  but  they  might  still  have  objected 
to  his  method  of  helping  them.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
never  could  have  won  his  audience  to  his  cause  by  appeal- 
ing to  their  understanding  alone;  it  was  only  by  the 
pathetic  story  of  the  little  Edinburgh  boy  and  by  the  won- 
derful picture  of  the  little  tots  asleep  in  their  hospital 
beds,  too  tired  and  sick  to  play  with  their  toys,  that  he 
extracted  from  the  people  their  treasured  coins. 

III.   A  Definite  Plan 

Although  the  persuasive  speaker  uses  the  four  forms 
of  discourse,  he  does  not  throw  them  together  without  a 


THE  FOUR  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  63 

definite  plan.  A  closer  examination  of  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  ideas  in  Dickens'  speech  will  prove  this  to  be 
true.  In  paragraph  i,  he  sought  by  pleasantry  to  put 
his  hearers  in  a  good  humor;  in  paragraph  2,  he  announced 
the  purpose  of  his  speech;  in  paragraph  3,  he  described 
the  sufferings  of  one  poor  little  child;  in  paragraph  4, 
he  showed  that  there  were  many  children  in  London  who 
suffered  in  a  similar  way  and  who  were  in  need  of  hospital 
care;  and  in  paragraph  5,  he  brought  the  whole  matter 
home  by  reminding  them,  under  the  name  of  dream  chil- 
dren, of  the  children  whom  they  loved  most  dearly. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the  pleasantry  of  paragraph  i, 
if  used  in  any  other  portion  of  the  speech,  would  have 
infused  an  atmosphere  of  insincerity  and  would  thus  have 
destroyed  the  effectiveness  of  the  appeal.  By  picturing 
the  sufferings  of  one  poor  child  and  then  pointing  out  the 
numerous  children  in  London  who  suffered  in  a  similar 
way,  Dickens  forced  his  audience  to  multiply  their 
sjonpathy  by  ten  thousand.  This  could  not  have  been 
accompHshed  if  paragraph  4  had  preceded  paragraph  3. 
It  is  certain  that  he  could  not  have  referred  to  the  dear 
children  of  our  own  homes  in  a  more  acceptable  place  than 
in  his  closing  paragraph.  It  is  to  such  considerations  as 
these,  we  believe,  that  the  speech  of  Dickens  owes  a 
large  measure  of  its  effectiveness. 

Conclusion.  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
that  the  majority  of  speeches  that  we  shall  make  in  real 
life  will  have  persuasion  as  their  object;  (2)  that,  if  we  are 
to  be  persuasive  speakers,  we  must  learn  to  use  all  of  the 
four  forms  of  discourse;  and  (3)  that  we  must  learn  to 
weave  these  four  forms  into  a  very  definite  i)!an. 


64  ORAL  ENGLISH 

TOPICAL    OUTLINE 

A  Speaker's  Use  of  the  Four  Forms  of  Discourse 

Introduction. 

I.   The  purpose  of  Part  I. 
II.   The  purpose  of  Part  II. 
III.   The  subject  matter  of  the  present  chapter. 
Body. 

I.   The  main  object  of  speech.  —  Hon.  James  Bryce. 

A.  Pleasure  as  the  sole  purpose. 

1.  Long  speeches  of  this  nature. 

2.  Short  speeches. 

B.  Great  demand  for  persuasiveness. 

1.  In  the  business  world. 

2.  In  organizations. 

3.  In  public  Ufe. 

4.  Plato's  definition. 

C.  Union  of  both  aims. 

I.   Example  of  Dickens'  speech. 
II.   Use  of  the  four  forms  of  discourse.  —  Basis  of  division. 

A.  Description  and  narration. 

1.  Purpose. 

2.  Definition  of  each. 

3.  Used  by  Dickens. 

B.  Exposition  and  argument. 

1.  Purpose. 

2.  Definition  of  each. 

3.  As  used  by  Dickens. 

C.  Necessity  for  all  forms. 

1.  Value  of  each. 

2.  Judicious  mixture. 
III.   A  definite  plan. 

A .  Dickens'  plan  in  detail. 

B.  Reasons  why  it  is  the  best  plan. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  entire  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from 
the  topical  outhne. 


READING   LESSON   IV  65 


READING   LESSON    IV 

1.  Extract  from  the  speech,  Conciliation  with  the  Colonies,  by- 
Edmund  Burke,  in  which  the  great  Enghsh  orator  is  trying  to  con- 
vince his  fellow  members  in  Parliament  that  it  would  be  to  England's 
advantage  to  yield  to  the  demands  of  the  American  colonies  (March 
22,  177s): 

"Look  at  the  manner  in  which  the  people  of  New  England  have  of 
late  carried  on  the  whale  fishery.  Whilst  we  follow  them  among  the 
tumbUng  mountains  of  ice,  and  behold  them  penetrating  into  the 
deepest  frozen  recesses  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  Davis'  Straits,  whilst 
we  are  looking  for  them  beneath  the  arctic  circle,  we  hear  that  they 
have  pierced  into  the  opposite  region  of  polar  cold,  that  they  are  at 
the  antipodes,  and  engaged  under  the  frozen  Serpent  of  the  South. 
Falkland  Islands,  which  seemed  too  remote  and  romantic  an  object 
for  the  grasp  of  national  ambition,  is  but  a  stage  and  resting-place  in 
the  progress  of  their  victorious  industry.  Nor  is  the  equinoctial  heat 
more  discouraging  to  them  than  the  accumulated  winter  of  both  the 
poles.  We  know  that  whilst  some  of  them  draw  the  line  and  strike 
the  harpoon  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  others  run  the  longitude  and  pur- 
sue their  gigantic  game  along  the  coast  of  Brazil.  No  sea  but  what 
is  vexed  by  their  fisheries;  no  climate  that  is  not  witness  to  their 
toil.  Neither  the  perseverance  of  Holland,  nor  the  activity  of  France, 
nor  the  dexterous  and  firm  sagacity  of  English  enterprise  ever  carried 
this  most  perilous  mode  of  hardy  industry  to  the  extent  to  which  it 
has  been  pushed  by  this  recent  people;  a  people  who  are  still,  as  it 
were,  but  in  the  gristle,  and  not  yet  hardened  into  the  bone  of  man- 
hood." 

2.  Extract  from  a  speech  by  Abraham  Lincoln  when  he  was  run- 
ning for  the  office  of  Senator  from  Illinois  against  Stephen  A.  Douglas 
(July  9.  1858): 

"  'A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand.'  I  believe  this 
government  cannot  endure  permanently,  half  slave  and  half  free.  I 
do  not  expect  the  Union  to  be  dissolved,  I  do  not  expect  the  house  to 
fall,  but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided.  It  will  become  all 
one  thing  or  all  the  other.     Either  the  opponents  of  slavery  will  arrest 


66  ORAL  ENGLISH 

the  further  spread  of  it,  and  place  it  where  the  public  mind  shall  rest 
in  the  belief  that  it  is  in  the  course  of  ultimate  extinction;  or  its 
advocates  will  push  it  forward  till  it  shall  become  alike  lawful  in  all 
States,  old  and  new,  North  as  well  as  South." 

3.  Extract  from  an  address,  "The  Public  Duty  of  Educated  Men," 
delivered  by  George  William  Curtis  at  the  commencement  exercises 
of  Union  College,  June  27,  1877.  In  the  part  of  the  address  which 
immediately  precedes  this  extract,  he  says  that  the  educated  man 
should  not  only  go  to  the  polls  and  vote,  but  that  he  also  owes  it  to 
his  country  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  nomination  of  candidates, 
in  order  that  knaves  may  not  be  permitted  to  get  control  of  the 
government.     He  then  continues: 

'But,  Gentlemen,  when  you  come  to  address  yourselves  to  these 
primary  public  duties,  your  first  surprise  and  dismay  will  be  the  dis- 
covery that,  in  a  country  where  education  is  declared  to  be  the  hope 
of  its  institutions,  the  higher  education  is  often  practically  held  to  be 
almost  a  disadvantage.  You  will  go  from  these  halls  to  hear  a  very 
common  sneer  at  college-bred  men;  to  encounter  a  jealousy  of  edu- 
cation as  making  men  visionary  and  pedantic  and  impracticable;  to 
confront  a  belief  that  there  is  something  enfeebling  in  the  higher 
education,  and  that  self-made  men,  as  they  are  called,  are  the  sure 
stay  of  the  state.  But  what  is  really  meant  by  a  self-made  man? 
It  is  a  man  of  native  sagacity  and  strong  character,  who  was  taught, 
it  is  proudly  said,  only  at  the  plow  or  the  anvil  or  the  bench.  He  is 
Benjamin  Franklin,  the  printer,  or  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  rail-splitter. 
They  never  went  to  college  but  nevertheless,  like  Agamemnon,  they 
were  kings  of  men,  and  the  world  blesses  their  memory. 

"So  it  does;  but  the  sophistry  here  is  plain  enough  although  it  is 
not  always  detected.  Great  genius  and  force  of  character  undoubtedly 
make  their  own  career.  But  because  Walter  Scott  was  dull  at  school, 
is  a  parent  to  see  with  joy  that  his  son  is  a  dunce?  Because  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  gambled  and  swore  and  boozed  at  Houghton,  are  we  to 
suppose  that  gross  sensuality  and  coarse  contempt  of  human  nature 
are  the  essential  secrets  of  a  power  that  defended  liberty  against 
Tory  intrigue  and  priestly  politics?  Was  it  because  Abraham  Lincoln 
had  little  schooling  that  his  great  heart  beat  true  to  God  and  man, 
lifting  him  to  free  a  race  and  die  for  his  country?" 


READING    LESSON    IV  67 

4.   From  the  eulog\'  of  General  Grant  by  Horace  Porter: 

"Outside  that  house  the  street  was  filled  with  marching  men  and 
martial  music.  Inside  that  house  the  old  chief  lay  on  a  bed  of  anguish, 
the  pallor  of  death  alread)^  beginning  to  overspread  his  illustrious 
features.  The  hand  which  had  seized  the  surrendered  swords  of 
countless  thousands  was  scarcely  able  to  return  the  pressure  of  a 
friendly  grasp;  the  voice  which  had  cheered  on  to  triumphant  \'ictory 
the  legions  of  American  manhood  was  no  longer  able  to  call  for  the 
cooling  draught  which  slaked  the  thirst  of  a  fevered  tongue.  And 
prostrate  upon  that  bed  of  suffering  lay  the  form  which  in  the  new 
world  had  ridden  at  the  head  of  conquering  columns;  in  the  old  world 
had  marched  through  the  palaces  of  crowned  heads  with  the  descend- 
ants of  a  line  of  kings  rising  and  standing  uncovered  in  his  presence." 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE   SPEAKER'S   EQUIPMENT 

Introduction.  —  Equipment  is  a  term  applied  to  that 
which  a  person  carries  with  him  to  help  him  accomplish 
his  work.  The  woodchopper  carries  an  axe;  the  artist 
carries  paints,  brushes,  and  canvas;  the  speaker  must 
equip  himself  with  ideas  and  with  words  with  which  to 
express  those  ideas.  The  equipment  of  the  speaker  can- 
not be  purchased  at  the  shop  or  studio  but  must  be 
gradually  gathered  and  hoarded,  one  thing  here  and 
another  there.  It  is  told  of  Webster  that,  after  his 
masterful  reply  to  Hayne,  he  was  asked  how  much  time 
he  had  given  to  preparation  and  he  answered,  "All  my 
life."  A  speaker  is  rewarded  for  his  effort,  however,  by 
the  fact  that  his  equipment  will  never  wear  out  like  that 
of  the  woodchopper  or  the  artist,  but  will  grow  richer 
and  finer  with  time  and  use. 

If  it  took  a  hfetime  for  Webster  to  gather  his  equip- 
ment, it  is  needless  to  say  that  the  young  speaker  should 
waste  no  time  in  making  a  start.  The  attitude  which  a 
speaker  should  take  toward  this  matter  has  been  well 
expressed  by  Nathan  Sheppard:  "An  editor  says,  'I 
never  come  upon  a  thought,  a  fact,  or  an  incident  without 
asking  myself  how  I  can  get  an  article  out  of  it.'  The 
speaker  says,  'How  shall  I  use  it  for  an  audience?'  He 
should  be  the  most  alert-minded  man  in  the  world. 
He  should  get  into   the  habit  of  picking  up  something 


THE   SPEAKER'S   EQUIPMENT  69 

from  everybody  and  everything  and  everywhere.  A 
robin  should  not  be  more  industrious  in  gathering  insects 
for  her  young." 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i)  how  to  gather  an 
equipment  of  ideas;  (2)  how  to  gather  an  equipment  of 
words;  and  (3)  how  to  preserve  our  collection. 

I.   How  TO  Gather  an  Equipment  of  Ideas 

An  equipment  of  ideas  may  be  gathered  from  three 
sources:  from  our  high-school  studies,  from  the  world- 
hfe  about  us,  and  from  our  own  minds. 

Studies.  —  The  studies  which  you  are  pursuing  daily 
in  your  high-school  course,  and  which  you  may  have  re- 
garded as  tasks  especially  provided  to  deprive  you  of 
your  freedom,  are  the  very  sources  from  which  speakers 
throughout  the  centuries  have  gathered  material  for 
their  speeches. 

Let  us  consider,  first,  the  so-called  culture  studies  —  his- 
tory, literature,  and  languages.  The  speeches  of  George 
William  Curtis  are  filled  with  historical  facts.  In  the 
brief  passage  quoted  in  Reading  Lesson  IV,  he  used  four 
historical  facts  to  support  his  claim  that  a  lack  of  educa- 
tion and  culture  is  not  a  cause  of  greatness.  The  pages 
of  history  are  open  to  you  as  they  were  to  him.  How 
delightfully  Dickens  referred,  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
speech,  to  the  essays  of  Charles  Lamb!  You  will  have  the 
privilege,  during  your  high-school  course,  not  only  of  read- 
ing Lamb's  essays,  but  also  of  exploring  the  whole  rich  field 
of  English  literature.  Perhaps  you  arc  studying  Latin  or 
some  other  foreign  language.  Why  should  not  the  ideas, 
customs,  and  stories  of  these  other  peoples,  old  yet  always 
new,  provide  your  speeches  with  color  and  ornament? 


70  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Let  us  consider  next  the  field  of  science.  Notice  how 
much  knowledge  of  geography  and  astronomy  is  shown 
in  the  passage  from  Edmund  Burke.  It  would  seem  that 
with  the  wealth  of  illustration  which  he  had  at  his  com- 
mand, he  could  not  have  failed  to  convince  the  members 
of  ParHament  that  the  people  of  New  England  were  an 
enterprising  people.  Learn  to  levy  tribute  on  your  scien- 
tific studies  in  the  same  way. 

The  difficulty  is  that  we  are  apt  to  look  at  these  lessons 
as  so  many  facts  to  be  crammed  for  an  examination, 
whereas  we  should  seek  to  glean  from  them  material  for 
future  use.  Washington  Irving  says  of  his  fat  Van  Twiller, 
"His  cheeks  had  taken  toll  of  all  that  had  gone  into  his 
mouth."  Why  should  not  your  mind,  in  the  same  way, 
take  toll  of  these  daily  assignments? 

World-life.  —  It  is  not  alone  from  books,  however, 
that  the  speakers  of  the  past  and  of  the  present  have 
gathered  their  equipment  of  facts  and  ideas.  They  have 
come  into  the  closest  possible  touch  with  the  great  world- 
Hfe  about  them.  Lincoln's  biographers  say  of  him,  "He 
would  stop  in  the  street  and  analyze  a  machine  .  .  . 
clocks,  omnibuses,  languages,  paddle-wheels,  and  idioms 
never  escaped  his  observation  and  analysis."  As  a  result 
of  this  habit  of  close  study  of  the  things  which  he  saw,  his 
speeches  are  full  of  quaint,  homely  comparisons.  We 
have  seen  that  Dickens,  also,  was  very  observant.  He 
noticed  that  the  porridge  pot  was  empty  and  that 
the  baby's  cradle  was  not  merely  a  box,  but  an  egg-box. 
It  is  because  he  saw  and  recorded  these  small  details 
that  his  word-pictures  take  such  hold  on  the  mind  and 
heart. 

The  great  majority  of  us  have  not  yet  formed   this 


THE  SPEAKER'S   EQUIPMENT  71 

valuable  habit  of  observation.  The  best  way  to  cultivate 
it  is  to  write  each  day  a  few  sentences  descriptive  of  what- 
ever has  arrested  one's  attention  since  the  preceding  day. 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson  says  of  his  boyhood,  "As  I  walked, 
my  mind  was  busy  fitting  what  I  saw  with  appropriate 
words;  when  I  sat  by  the  roadside,  a  pencil  and  a  penny 
version  book  would  be  in  my  hand  to  note  down  the  fea- 
tures of  the  scene  ...  I  had  vowed  that  I  would  learn 
to  write.  That  was  a  proficiency  that  tempted  me;  I 
practiced  it  as  men  learn  to  whittle,  in  a  wager  with  my- 
self. Description  was  the  principal  field  of  my  exercise; 
for  to  anyone  with  sense,  there  is  always  something  worth 
describing,  and  town  and  country  are  but  one  continuous 
subject."  Those  of  us  who  have  read  Treasure  Island, 
Travels  "with  a  Donkey,  or  any  other  of  his  charming 
tales,  are  very  glad  indeed  that  Stevenson  made  this 
wager  with  himself. 

Originality.  —  We  have  seen  that  the  young  speaker 
has,  in  his  daily  lessons,  an  almost  unlimited  supply  of 
speech-making  material;  and  that  if  he  will  but  cultivate 
the  habit  of  keen  observation,  he  may  find  all  about  him 
that  which  will  give  life  and  interest  to  his  discourse. 
He  may  also  discover  a  third  source  of  ideas  in  his  own 
mind.  Perhaps  you  will  say,  "I  am  not  original";  but 
originality  does  not  mean  the  production  of  something 
absolutely  new;  it  means  the  production  of  new  combina- 
tions of  things.  Electricity  has  always  existed,  but  the 
phonograph  and  the  electric  car  did  not  exist  until  a  cer- 
tain combination  was  made  in  the  mind  of  Edison.  If  a 
student  will  take  time  to  think  about  that  which  he  reads 
and  observes,  his  mind,  too,  will  produce  original  ideas. 


72  ORAL  ENGLISH 

II.   How  TO  Gather  an  Equipment  of  Words 

Use  of  the  Dictionary.  —  One  of  the  best  ways  to 
gather  an  equipment  of  words  is  to  study  the  dictionary. 
It  is  said  that  when  O.  Henry  was  living  among  the  cow- 
boys and  without  access  to  books  in  general,  he  spent  two 
years  in  studying  the  dictionary  and  in  forming  its  words 
into  sentences.  Although  the  student,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  would  not  find  this  an  attractive  or  perhaps  a 
desirable  method  of  enlarging  his  vocabulary,  he  can, 
nevertheless,  do  much  more  than  he  usually  does,  through 
its  use,  to  increase  his  mastery  of  the  English  tongue. 
When  he  happens  upon  a  new  word,  he  should  look  up  its 
meaning  and  pronunciation  and  try  to  make  it  a  part  of 
his  own  equipment.  When  he  is  writing  a  letter  or  com- 
posing a  speech,  he  should  try  to  cultivate  a  feeling  for 
the  right  word.  If  the  one  which  occurs  to  his  mind  is 
not  satisfactory,  he  should  look  it  up  in  the  dictionary 
and  decide  whether  or  not  any  of  its  synonyms  would  be 
better  adapted  to  his  purpose.  Daniel  Webster  had 
cultivated  this  feeling  for  the  right  word,  as  is  shown  by 
the  following  story:  "Once  while  addressing  an  audience, 
he  had  difficulty  in  finding  just  the  word  he  wanted.  He 
discarded  one  after  another  until  five  or  six  had  been 
disposed  of,  when  suddenly  he  found  the  word  he  had 
been  so  earnestly  seeking.  As  he  gave  expression  to  it, 
the  audience,  who  had  mentally  followed  his  anxious 
search,  burst  out  into  spontaneous  applause."  ^ 

Usage  of  Good  Authors.  —  Although  we  can  get  the 
meaning  of  words  from  the  dictionary,  it  is  only  by  read- 

1  Grenville  Kleiser,  How  to  Develop  Power  and  Personality  in  Speak- 
ing, p.  63. 


THE  SPEAKER'S  EQUIPMENT  73 

ing  good  books  and  listening  to  good  speakers  that  we  can 
realize  the  appropriateness  of  words.  Let  us  notice  a 
few  of  the  things  worth  knowing,  which  the  careful  study 
of  a  good  writer  or  speaker  can  reveal-  to  us. 

In  the  first  place,  he  adapts  his  words  to  the  nature  of 
the  idea  that  he  wishes  to  express.  Commonplace  things 
are  described  with  commonplace  words,  whereas  ideas 
that  are  abstract  or  dignified  in  their  nature  are  ex- 
pressed by  words  of  an  abstract  or  dignified  character. 
Dickens,  for  instance,  when  he  wishes  to  describe  a  simple, 
homely  scene,  uses  short,  homely  words:  "In  a  room  in 
one  of  these  places,  where  there  was  an  empty  porridge  pot 
on  the  cold  hearth,  with  a  ragged  woman  and  some  ragged 
children  crouching  on  the  bare  ground  near  it,  .  .  ." 
When,  however,  he  wishes  to  express  a  thought  which  is 
more  abstract  and  dignified,  he  uses  longer  words  of  more 
stately  quality:  for  example,  ''You  may  read  with  what 
a  generous  earnestness  the  highest  and  wisest  members 
of  the  medical  profession  testify  to  the  great  need  of  it, 
to  the  immense  difficulty  of  treating  children  in  the  same 
hospital  with  grown-up  people,  by  reason  of  their  different 
ailments  and  requirements."  Young  writers  and  speakers 
are  often  tempted  to  use  elaborate  words  to  express  simple 
ideas.  The  result  is  a  style  which  is  "high-flown"  and 
ridiculous. 

In  the  second  place,  a  good  writer  or  speaker  uses  a 
variety  of  words  to  express  the  same  idea.  He  does  not 
make  the  same  word  "do  duty"  too  frequently.  P'or 
exami)le,  Dickens,  when  he  first  describes  the  sick  child 
in  Edinburgh,  speaks  of  him  ■d'^  feeble  and  wan,  but  later 
he  refers  to  him  as  drooping;,. 

In  the  third  place,  a  writer  or  speaker  who  succeeds  in 


74  ORAL  ENGLISH 

making  an  impression  uses  a  great  many  v/ords  that  create 
pictures.  Such  words  are  sometimes  called  concrete,  or 
specific,  as  distinguished  from  abstract  or  general  words: 
for  example,  Mr.  Curtis,  instead  of  saying  "taught  by 
hard  labor,"  said,  ''taught,  only  at  the  plow,  the  anvil, 
or  the  bench."  Instead  of  describing  Sir  Robert  Walpole 
as  a  profligate,  he  told  us  that  he  "gambled  and  swore 
and  boozed."  Adjectives  that  describe  motions  have 
also  this  quality  of  calling  up  mental  pictures.  For  in- 
stance, Dickens  speaks  of  "attentive  eyes"  and  "bright 
moving  sea."  Burke,  instead  of  referring  to  icebergs, 
speaks  of  "tumbling  mountains  of  ice." 

III.   How  TO  Preserve  a  Collection 

Although  much  of  what  one  reads,  observes,  and  thinks 
becomes  a  part  of  himself  and  cannot  be  taken  away,  yet 
it  would  be  quite  impossible  for  the  average  person  to 
carry  all  of  this  material  in  his  mind  and  have  it  ready 
for  immediate  use.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  make  a 
collection  of  words  and  ideas  as  one  would  collect  bird- 
eggs  or  postage  stamps.  Many  of  the  great  writers  and 
speakers,  as  Hawthorne,  Lowell,  and  Phillips  Brooks,  kept 
notebooks  throughout  their  lives.  In  these  they  recorded 
such  ideas  as  they  had  gathered  from  reading  and  travel, 
together  with  their  own  meditations.  This,  every  suc- 
cessful writer  and  speaker  must  do.  The  modern  student, 
however,  has  evolved  a  somewhat  more  useful  method  of 
preserving  this  material  than  is  found  in  the  old  notebook 
system. 

Form  of  the  Collection.  —  The  student  should  provide 
himself  with  loose  sheets  of  paper  about  3x5  inches  or 
smaller.     One  can  buy  this  already  cut  from  a  stationer  or 


THE   SPEAKER'S   EQUIPMENT  75 

job  printer,  or  he  can  utilize  old  notebooks  for  the  pur- 
pose, cutting  the  paper  himself.  He  should  then  purchase 
a  package  of  manila  envelopes  large  enough  to  hold  the 
paper  easily.  One  should  be  very  careful  in  this  matter, 
as  it  will  be  found  very  annoying  to  be  obliged  to  fold  the 
paper  or  to  crowd  it  into  a  small  envelope.  The  collection 
should  be  kept  by  itself,  where  it  can  be  distinguished  from 
algebra  papers  and  unanswered  letters.  Perhaps  very 
few  students  are  so  fortunate  as  to  own  a  writing  desk 
with  pigeon-holes.  This  is  of  small  importance,  however, 
as  a  shoe-box  or  a  starch-box  will  do  as  well.  It  is  only 
necessary  that  the  collection  be  kept  in  a  definite  place 
and  that  it  grow. 

Method  of  Collecting.  —  Just  as  a  collector  of  bugs 
carries  a  net  and  a  bottle  when  he  goes  for  a  walk,  so 
the  student-speaker  should  carry  an  envelope  filled  with 
sheets  of  paper.  When  he  happens  upon  a  good  story,  a 
humorous  anecdote,  an  apt  quotation,  an  interesting  fact, 
he  should  note  it  down.  Each  item  should  be  placed  on 
a  separate  slip  of  paper.  One  sheet  of  paper  may  be  kept 
for  words  which  impress  the  student  as  being  particu- 
larly good  words  for  his  own  future  use.  Another  sheet 
may  contain  new  words  which  are  to  be  looked  up  at 
some  convenient  time.  Valuable  newspaper  clippings 
also  may  be  kept  in  this  way.  When  the  envelope  is 
filled  with  notes,  the  student  should  transfer  the  notes  to 
his  treasure  box,  refill  his  envelope  with  blank  sheets,  and 
begin  again. 

Method  of  Classifying.  —  A  collection  is  of  small  value 
unless  the  specimens  are  classified  so  that  the  owner  can 
readily  find  what  is  wanted.  A  few  envelopes  can  be 
labeled  at  the  start,  as  follows:    Stories,  Facts,  Proverbs, 


76  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Quotations,  Words,  etc. ;  another  envelope  may  be  labeled 
with  some  subject  in  which  one  is  particularly  interested, 
as  machinery,  wild  flowers,  musical  history,  or  art.  Some 
day,  when  time  hangs  heavy,  it  will  be  a  real  pleasure  to 
look  over  the  notes  and  place  them  in  the  proper  envelopes. 
As  the  collection  grows,  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to 
re-classify.  One  envelope  will  grow  more  rapidly  than 
another  and  will  become  so  crowded  as  to  need  division. 
Some  notes  will  be  discarded  later  on  as  of  little  value. 
For  these  reasons  it  is  best  to  write  the  labels  in  pencil. 

The  student  who  adopts  the  above-described  method 
of  preserving  his  treasures  of  thought  will  find  that,  while 
old  notebooks  gather  dust  in  garret  or  cellar,  the  classified 
collection  of  notes  becomes  a  constantly  increasing  source 
of  help  and  inspiration. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
how  a  speaker  may  gather  an  equipment  of  ideas;  (2) 
how  he  may  gather  an  equipment  of  words;  and  (3)  how 
he  may  preserve  this  equipment  in  the  most  useful  form. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

The  Speaker's  Equipment 
Introduction. 

I.   The  equipment  of  the  speaker  compared  with  that  of  the 

woodchopper  or  the  artist. 
II.   The  attitude  which  a  speaker  should  have. 
III.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   How  to  gather  an  equipment  of  ideas. 

A .   Studies  —  used  by  speakers  of  the  past. 

1.  Culture  studies. 

2.  Scientific  studies. 

3.  Wrong  and  right  attitude  compared. 


THE  SPEAKER'S   EQUIPMENT  77 

I.    B.    World-life. 

1.  Illustrations  of  the  power  of  observation. 

2.  Method  of  cultivating  the  habit  of  observation. 
C.    Originality. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  How  to  be  original. 

II.   How  to  gather  an  equipment  of  words. 

A .  Use  of  the  dictionary. 

1.  O.  Henry. 

2.  New  words. 

3.  Synonyms.  —  Daniel  Webster. 

B.  Usage  of  good  authors. 

1 .  x\ppropriateness. 

2.  Variety. 

3.  Picture-making  words. 

III.   How  to  preserve  a  collection.  —  Custom  of  old  writers  and 
speakers. 

A.  Form  of  the  collection. 

B.  Method  of  collecting. 

C.  Method  and  value  of  classifying. 

Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  text  as  far  as  the  topic  "How  to  Preserve 
a  Collection,"  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  i.  Dickens  tells  us  that  the  little  baby  should 
have  been  "as  bright  and  as  brisk  as  the  Httle  birds  that  never  got 
near  him."  Look  up  brisk  in  a  large  dictionar>^  and  copy  the  syno- 
nyms. Consider  each  from  the  standpoint  of  meaning,  appropriate- 
ness, and  sowid,  and  show,  if  you  can,  that  Dickens  chose  the 
best  word. 

2.  Think  of  and  write  some  more  ordinary  word  which  you  would 
probably  have  used  for  each  of  the  following,  if  you  had  been  trying 
to  express  Dickens'  thoughts:  tougltcn  its  affections,  prop  their 
eyelids,  contravening  the  ways  of  Providence,  humane  members, 
recking  with  horrible  odors,  crouching  on  the  bare  ground,  courtly  old 
house,  flushed  cheek,  toppled  over,  shorn  of  their  natural  capacity, 
that  it  shall  flourish. 


78  ORAL  ENGLISH 

If  you  do  not  remember  the  connection  in  which  these  expressions 
were  used,  look  them  up  in  the  speech.  If  you  cannot  easily  supply 
a  synonym,  look  up  the  word  in  the  dictionary. 

Exercise  III.  —  Complete  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from 
the  topical  outline.  Provide  yourself  with  paper  and  envelopes  for 
your  collection,  labeling  the  envelopes  as  directed. 

Exercise  IV.  —  Written  Review.  Be  able  to  write  in  class  on  any 
of  the  following  topics: 

1.  The  Chief  Object  of  Speech-making. 

2.  How  Dickens  Used  the  Four  Forms  of  Discourse. 

3.  How  They  are  Fitted  into  a  Plan. 

4.  Our  Studies  as  a  Source  of  Ideas. 

5.  The  World-life  as  a  Source  of  Ideas. 

6.  Originahty. 

7.  Gaining  a  Vocabulary  by  a  Study  of  the  Dictionary. 

8.  Gaining  a  Vocabulary  by  a  Study  of  the  Best  Authors  and 
Speakers. 

9.  How  to  Make  a  Speaker's  Collection. 


CHAPTER   VII 

HOW   TO   PLAN   A   SPEECH 

Introduction.  —  A  good  speech,  whether  it  is  one 
minute  or  one  hour  in  length,  must  have  three  quahties: 
(i)  unity,  which  means  that  the  gist  or  substance  of  it 
can  be  stated  in  one  sentence;  (2)  coherence,  which 
means  that  each  idea  leads  naturally  to  the  next,  so  that 
it  can  easily  be  followed  by  the  audience;  and  (3)  empha- 
sis, which  means  that  there  is  a  gradually  increasing  force 
throughout  the  speech. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i)  how  to  lay  the  basis 
for  these  qualities  when  we  make  a  plan;  (2)  the  best 
way  to  make  a  plan;  and  (3)  the  difference  between  the 
plan  for  an  argument  and  the  plan  for  an  exposition. 

I.  How  TO  Plan  for  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis 

Unity  through  Choice  of  a  Subject.  —  The  speaker  can 
lay  the  foundation  for  unity  by  choosing  a  subject  that 
deals  with  only  one  thing.  A  speech  on  the  subject 
"Motion  Pictures"  might  have  unity,  whereas  it  would  be 
impossible  to  present  a  unified  discussion  of  the  subject, 
"The  Method  of  Taking  Motion  Pictures  and  their  Influ- 
ence on  the  Public." 

At  the  same  time  the  subject  must  not  cover  too  large 
a  field  to  be  handled  effectively  in  the  time  allotted.  A 
speaker  could  not  treat  the  subject  of  "Motion  Pictures" 
successfully  in   two    minutes.  ,  He  would    be    obliged  to 


8o  ORAL  ENGLISH 

touch  on  a  large  number  of  ideas  in  such  a  brief  way  as  to 
prevent  his  giving  an  impression  of  unity.  With  such  a 
restricted  time  Hmit,  it  would  be  necessary  to  narrow 
the  subject,  that  is,  to  discuss  only  one  phase  of  it.  One 
might,  for  instance,  discuss  in  two  minutes  any  one  of 
the  following  topics:  "Methods  of  Taking  Motion  Pic- 
tures of  Wild  Animals,"  "Educational  Value  of  Motion 
Pictures,"  and  "A  Motion  Picture  I  Have  Seen." 

Unity  of  Purpose.  —  In  real  life,  when  a  speaker  chooses 
a  subject,  he  has  a  definite  purpose  in  view:  he  desires 
either  to  instruct,  to  convince,  or  to  entertain.  It  is 
true  that  he  may  use  instruction  and  entertainment  as 
an  aid  to  conviction,  —  such  we  found  to  be  Dickens' 
method,  —  but  some  one  purpose  will  be  predominant. 
In  practice  speaking,  the  student  should  choose  his  sub- 
ject with  a  definite  purpose  in  mind.  He  should  test  the 
unity  of  his  purpose  by  writing  the  gist  of  what  he  has 
to  say  in  a  single  sentence,  called  the  topic  or  theme  sen- 
tence. Let  us  consider  a  few  illustrations.  If  a  student 
were  to  discuss  "Methods  of  Taking  Motion  Pictures  of 
Wild  Animals,"  his  purpose  would  be  mainly  that  of 
instruction  and  his  theme  sentence  might  be,  "It  requires 
great  patience  and  daring  to  take  pictures  of  wild  animals." 
If  a  student  were  to  speak  on  "The  Educational  Value 
of  Motion  Pictures,"  his  purpose  might  be  to  convince 
the  members  of  the  Parents'  Club  that  they  should  allow 
their  children  to  attend  a  certain  moving  picture  perform- 
ance. His  theme  might  be,  "Our  moving  picture  show 
will  teach  your  children  in  one  hour  more  than  they 
could  learn  in  many  days  of  reading."  The  theme  sen- 
tence will  be  determined  largely  by  the  nature  of  the 
material  which  the  speaker  has  at  his  disposal,  unless  he 


HOW  TO  PLAN  A  SPEECH  81 

should  wish  to  look  up  material  to  illustrate  and  develop 
his  theme.  It  should  be  clear,  however,  from  the  fore- 
going discussion,  that  if  the  speech  is  to  have  unity,  the 
subject,  the  purpose,  the  theme  sentence,  and  the  speech 
material  should  coincide. 

Unity  in  Development.  —  The  speech  is  an  elaboration 
or  a  development  of  the  theme  sentence.  The  introduc- 
tion furnishes  a  means  of  unity  in  that  it  either  suggests 
the  main  thought  or  is  an  actual  statement  of  the  main 
thought.  Since  the  introduction  to  a  two-minute  speech 
should  not  consist  of  more  than  one  sentence,  it  is  well 
in  practice  work  to  use  some  version  of  the  theme  sentence 
as  the  introduction.  This  may  in  some  cases  seem  abrupt, 
but  it  will  help  the  beginner  to  secure  unity,  and  a  more 
artistic  method  may  be  studied  later. 

The  body  of  the  speech  should  be  an  expansion  of  the 
main  idea.  The  theme  sentence  may  be  enlarged  upon  in 
several  ways:  (i)  it  may  be  repeated  several  times  in 
different  words  (See  Reading  Lesson  IV,  2,  page  65); 
(2)  it  may  be  illustrated  by  facts  (See  Reading  Lesson  IV, 
I,  page  65);  and  (3)  it  may  be  compared  with  something 
else  (See  Chapter  III,  Ex.  VI,  Selection  i). 

It  is  very  essential  in  this  expansion  that  not  a  single 
thought  be  allowed  to  enter  which  does  not  have  a  close 
relation  to  the  main  thought.  James  Russell  Lowell  has 
said  very  tersely  on  this  point,  "The  art  of  writing  consists 
in  knowing  what  to  leave  in  the  ink  pot." 

The  conclusion,  if  rightly  developed,  is  a  further  means 
of  strengthening  the  unity  of  the  speech.  It  may  be 
either  a  re-statement,  in  varied  language,  of  the  topic 
sentence,  or  it  may  simply  make  reference  to  the  main 
idea. 


82-  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Coherence.  —  A  speech  is  coherent,  as  we  have  already 
learned,  if  each  idea  leads  naturally  to  the  next,  so  that 
the  audience  can  easily  follow  the  line  of  thought.  If 
a  speaker  is  to  lead  his  audience,  he  should  first  consider 
the  state  of  mind  of  his  audience.  In  a  practice  speech, 
the  student  should  imagine  a  particular  audience,  deter- 
mine upon  an  appropriate  salutation,  and  proceed  to  adapt 
his  speech  to  his  hearers.  The  character  and  arrangement 
of  one's  material  should  vary  with  the  nature  of  the 
audience.  For  instance,  one  would  not  discuss  "Aero- 
planes" before  a  board  of  engineers  in  the  same  way 
that  he  would  before  a  boys'  literary  society. 

After  the  speaker  has  considered  his  ideas  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  experience  and  intelligence  of  his 
audience,  he  should  arrange  them  in  what  seems  to  be  the 
most  natural  order.  In  so  doing,  he  should  take  note  of 
the  following  rules:  (i)  A  general  statement  should  be 
made  before  the  details  which  illustrate  it.  (2)  The  easy 
should  be  stated  before  the  difhcult.  (3)  The  earlier  in 
time  should  be.  mentioned  before  the  later.  We  found 
that  Dickens'  speech  was  so  coherent  that  any  change 
in  the  order  of  his  ideas  would  injure  it.  The  student- 
speaker  should  test  the  coherence  of  his  speech  by  trying 
various  methods  of  arrangement. 

Emphasis.  —  Frequently  the  most  coherent  order  is 
also  the  most  emphatic  order;  that  is,  it  results  in  an 
impression  of  gradually  increasing  force  throughout  the 
speech.  This  can  be  effected,  in  some  measure,  by  arrang- 
ing the  ideas  in  the  order  of  strength,  the  strongest  last. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  develop  the  important  ideas  at 
greater  length  than  the  unimportant  ideas. 


HOW  TO  PLAN  A  SPEECH  83 

II.   The  Best  Method  of  Making  a  Plan 

Jottings.  —  After  having  chosen  his  subject,  the  student 
should  jot  down  one  key  word  for  each  idea  as  it  occurs  to 
him.  The  student  who  has  not  tried  this  method  will 
be  tempted  to  write  down  quite  full  notes  or  at  least  sev- 
eral words  for  each  idea.  To  do  this  would  be  a  mistake. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  exact  wording  be  determined 
upon  until  after  the  plan  has  been  made.  The  words 
are  to  be  jotted  down  merely  as  temporary  suggestions 
to  the  speaker  himself,  and  as  there  is  always  one  word 
used  in  the  expression  of  an  idea  which  is  more  suggestive 
than  any  other  word,  several  words  will  merely  be  cum- 
bersome —  a  fact  which  will  be  seen  more  clearly  later. 

The  speaker  should  not  try  to  arrange  his  ideas  in  order 
before  he  places  the  key  words  on  paper,  for  the  purpose 
of  the  jottings  is  merely  to  reveal  to  the  speaker  the  nature 
and  amount  of  his  material.  The  act  of  putting  down 
the  words  will  also  help  him  to  concentrate  his  mind. 
The  work  of  arrangement  will  come  later. 

Theme  Sentence.  —  The  student  should  next  try  to 
write  a  theme  sentence  that  includes  the  ideas  suggested 
by  the  words.  This  will  help  him  to  determine  his  pur- 
pose and  to  unify  his  material.  If  there  are  any  ideas 
which  cannot  be  included  in  the  theme  sentence,  the 
words  which  suggest  them  should  be  crossed  out. 

Word-brace  Outline,  —  The  remaining  words  should  be 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  word-brace  outline.'  It  will 
be  found  possible  to  group  the  ideas  under  main  divi- 
sions and  subdivisions.  In  this  work,  the  student  should 
follow  as  far  as  possible  the  suggestions  already  made 

^  See  .•\i)[)cndix  I  for  an  example  of  such  an  outline. 


84  ORAL  ENGLISH 

with  regard  to  coherence  and  emphasis.     The  following 
matters  of  form  also  should  be  observed: 

(i)  There  should  not  be  more  than  three  main  divisions 
nor  more  than  three  subdivisions  after  any  brace.  A 
violation  of  this  rule  makes  the  speech  difficult  for  both 
speaker  and  audience  to  remember.  Four  or  five  divisions 
can  always  be  grouped  under  two  larger  divisions. 

(2)  The  ideas  suggested  by  the  words  which  follow  a  brace 
should  relate  to  and  enlarge  upon  the  idea  suggested  by  the 
word  which  precedes  the  brace.  This  is  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  importance.  The  brace  itself  by  its  very  form  indi- 
cates that  the  words  included  within  its  prongs  enlarge  upon 
the  word  to  which  it  points.  -  To  transgress  this  rule,  then, 
is  to  indicate  an  untruth.  Where  but  one  idea  is  used  to 
enlarge  upon  another,  the  dash  is  used  instead  of  the  brace. 

(3)  As  far  as  possible  there  should  be  only  one  word  for 
each  sentence.  If  a  young  speaker  plans  to  make  several 
sentences  about  one  word,  he  is  apt  to  give  insufficient  care 
to  their  arrangement  and  construction.  Again,  if  he  allows 
himself  this  freedom,  he  may  fail  to  keep  within  his  time 
limit.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  uses  more  than  one  word 
for  each  sentence,  his  outline  will  be  cumbersome.  If  it 
were  necessary  for  him  to  look  at  it  while  speaking,  the 
large  number  of  words  would  be  confusing,  while  if  he 
should  decide  to  be  independent  of  an  outline,  the  added 
words  would  make  the  matter  difficult  to  memorize. 

III.   Difference  between  the  Plan  for  an  Argument 
AND  THE  Plan  for  an  Exposition 

Argument.  —  Each  of  the  main  divisions  of  an  argu- 
ment must  prove  or  give  reasons  for  the  theme  sentence. 
Let  us  take  as  an  example  the  following  simple  argument: 


HOW  TO  PLAN  A  SPEECH  85 

I.   Mary's  father  should  allow  her  to  go  to  the  party,  because 

A.  She  has  not  attended  a  party  for  two  months. 

B.  It  will  not  interfere  wth  her  lessons,  because 

I.   It  is  on  Frida)'  night. 

C.  Only  very  nice  young  people  mil  attend. 

When  a  student  makes  a  plan  for  an  argument,  he  should 
write  out  in  form  similar  to  the  example  given  above  not 
only  the  theme  sentence,  but  also  a  complete  sentence  for 
each  one  of  the  main  subdivisions.  In  so  doing,  he  must  be 
sure  that  each  subordinate  sentence  can  properly  be  joined 
to  the  theme  sentence  by  the  word  for  or  because.  If  they 
can  be  so  joined,  he  will  know  that  his  main  divisions  prove 
his  theme  and  that,  therefore,  his  plan  is  logical. 

Exposition.  —  The  main  divisions  of  an  exposition  need 
merely  relate  to  or  explain  the  theme  sentence.  Let  us 
consider  such  a  simple  announcement  as  the  following, 
which  might  be  classified  as  an  exposition: 

I.   The  Girls'  Literary  Society  is  going  to  give  a  party. 

.1.   It  will  be  given  in  the  Social  Hall  on  Friday  night. 

B.  The  hall  has  been  decorated  with  the  society  colors. 

C.  There  will  be  a  literary  program  followed  by  dancing. 

It  can  easily  be  seen  that  these  subdivisions  merely 
add  to  and  do  not  prove  the  theme  sentence.  Although 
it  is  sometimes  helpful  to  write  out  the  subordinate  sen- 
tences when  one  is  planning  an  exposition,  it  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  as  it  is  in  the  planning  of  an  argument. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
how  the  speaker  can  lay  the  foundation  for  unity,  coher- 
ence, and  emphasis  when  he  makes  his  plan;  (2)  how  to 
make  a  plan  for  a  speech  in  the  form  of  a  word-brace 
outline;  and  (.V)  how  the  plan  for  an  argument  differs 
from  the  i>Ian  for  an  exposition. 


86  ORAL  ENGLISH 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

How  TO  Plan  a  Speech 

Introdudion. 

I.   Three  qualities  of  a  good  speech  defined. 

II.  Advance  summary. 

Body. 

I.  How  to  plan  for  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 

A.   Unity. 

1.  Choice  of  a  subject. 

(o)   One  thing  only. 
{b)   Narrow  field. 

2.  Purpose  —  Its   relation   to    the   subject,    theme 

sentence,  and  speech  material. 

3.  Development. 

{a)    Introduction. 
{h)    Body. 

(i)    Methods  of  expansion. 

(2)    Relation     of     thoughts     to     main 
thought.  —  Lowell. 
(c)    Conclusion. 

B.  Coherence. 

1.  Nature  of  audience. 

2.  Natural  order  —  rules. 

C.  Emphasis. 

II.  The  best  method  of  making  a  plan. 

A.  Jottings. 

1.  One  word  only. 

2.  Purposes  of  the  jottings. 

B.  Theme  sentence. 

C.  Word-brace  outline  —  three  rules. 

III.  Difference  between  the  plan  for  an  argument  and  the  plan 

for  an  exposition. 

A.  Argument. 

1.  Relation  of  subdivisions  to  theme  sentence. 

2.  Necessity  of  writing  subdivisions. 

B.  Exposition. 

1.  Relation  of  subdivisions  to  theme  sentence. 

Conclusion. 


HOW  TO  PLAN  A   SPEECH  87 

Exercise  I.  —  i.  Study  the  text  as  far  as  the  topic  "Coherence," 
and  be  able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

2.  A  short  speech  written  out  would  make  a  paragraph.  Choose 
from  the  selections  for  reading  in  Chapter  III  the  three  best  para- 
graphs from  the  standpoint  of  unity.  Choose  only  those  whose  topic 
sentences  are  placed  first  and  whose  closing  sentences  either  refer  to 
the  main  idea  or  summarize  it  in  different  words. 

3.  Consult  Appendix  II.  Choose  from  Divisions  I  or  II,  or  any 
other  hst  which  represents  material  that  you  have  studied  in  High 
School,  two  topics  which  you  think  are  too  large  to  be  handled  in  two 
minutes.  Narrow  these  subjects;  that  is,  write  down  two  or  more 
phases  of  the  subject  which  might  be  handled  in  the  time  allotted. 

Exercise  II.  —  i .  Complete  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from 
the  topical  outline. 

2.  Review  the  Gettysburg  Address  (page  38)  and  Reading 
Lesson  IV,  4  (page  67),  and  be  able  to  prove  the  following: 

a.  The  ideas  arc  arranged  in  the  most  coherent  order. 

b.  The  ideas  are  arranged  in  the  most  emphatic  order. 

c.  ]\Iore  time  is  given  to  the  important  than  to  the  unimportant 
ideas. 

Exercise  III.  —  Select  a  subject  from  Appendix  II.  It  may  be 
one  that  you  narrowed  in  Exercise  I,  or  any  other  that  you  prefer. 
Decide  upon  the  nature  of  your  audience,  whether  it  is  to  be  an 
assembly  of  high-school  students,  grammar-school  students,  an 
organization  of  adults,  etc.  Determine  upon  and  write  an  appro- 
priate salutation.  Write  a  theme  or  topic  sentence.  If  your  subject 
is  argumentative,  write  a  subordinate  sentence  for  each  main  division 
and  be  sure  that  each  can  properly  be  joined  to  the  topic  sentence  by 
because.  Prepare  a  word  outline  for  a  two-minute  speech  on  the 
subject.  Write  this  whole  exercise  on  a  separate  sheet  of  your 
loose-leaf  notebook.     (See  example  in  Appendix  I.) 


CHAPTER   VIII 

ORAL  PREPARATION 

Introduction.  —  There  are  two  methods  of  practice 
which  are  valuable  to  one  who  would  learn  to  speak  well. 
The  first  is  called  the  impromptu  method.  This  is  fre- 
quently used  in  Hterary  societies.  A  member  is  assigned 
a  subject  and  requested  to  speak  without  previous  notice. 
Henry  Clay  made  a  very  profitable  use  of  this  method.  It 
was  his  custom  to  read  daily  one  chapter  from  some  his- 
torical or  scientific  book  and  then  go  out  immediately  to 
the  cornfield  or  to  the  stable,  where  he  would  repeat  the 
selection  aloud  in  his  own  language. 

The  merits  of  the  impromptu  method  are  evident. 
Such  practice  cannot  fail  to  quicken  the  mind  and  in- 
crease one's  command  of  language.  Its  defects,  however, 
are  quite  as  obvious.  In  the  first  place,  it  gives  little 
practice  in  the  arrangement  of  thought  and,  if  used 
exclusively,  is  apt  to  lead  to  a  habit  of  rambling  discourse. 
Again,  there  are  occasions  for  which  preparation  is  neces- 
sary. As  Mr.  J.  Berg  Esenwein  says,  "Don't  wait  to  dive 
for  pearls  of  thought  until  you  mount  the  platform  —  it 
might  be  painful  to  the  audience." 

Although  the  speaker  should  nerve  himself  occasion- 
ally to  an  impromptu  effort,  he  should  rely  mainly  upon 
what  has  been  called  the  extempore  method.  This 
kind  of  preparation  will  be  fully  explained  in  this  chap- 
ter, but  it  may  briefly  be  described  as  oral  composition 


OR.\L   PREPARATION  89 

based  upon  a  word-outline.  It  may  be  used  whenever 
the  speaker  is  given  sufficient  time  to  gather  and  arrange 
his  ideas. 

The  subject  of  oral  preparation  will  be  discussed  under 
the  following  headings:  (i)  description  of  the  extempore, 
or  oral  method  of  preparation,  (2)  value  of  this  method 
as  compared  with  that  of  writing  and  memorizing  one's 
thoughts,  and  (3)  the  written  speech  as  a  last  step. 

I.    Description  of  the  Extempore  Method 

Mental  Preparation.  —  The  speaker  should  /  h  i  n  k 
through  his  speech,  using  an  outline  prepared  as  directed 
in  Chapter  VII.  His  purpose  in  this  should  be  to  phrase 
each  idea  as  perfectly  as  possible.  The  student  may  think 
that  he  cannot  pohsh  his  phrases  unless  he  writes  them, 
but  he  should  remember  that  whether  he  composes  orally 
or  in  writing,  it  is  his  mind  that  does  the  polishing  and 
not  his  pen.  If  the  student  wishes  to  cultivate  a  good 
style,  he  should  persevere  during  this  part  of  his  prepara- 
tion until  he  gets  a  satisfactory  expression  of  his  ideas. 
Not  even  the  greatest  among  us  can  without  effort 
produce  what  is  worth  while.  That  master  of  style, 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  once  wrote  in  a  letter,  "Yester- 
day, I  was  a  living  half  hour  upon  a  single  clause  and  I 
have  a  galaxy  of  variants  that  would  surprise  you."  All 
of  this  painstaking  has  its  reward  in  the  end,  for,  as 
Thomas  W.  Higginson  says,  "For  intellect  in  the  rough, 
there  is  no  market." 

Oral  Practice.  —  When  the  student  has  determined 
upon  the  best  way  to  express  each  idea,  he  should  practice 
the  whole  speech  aloud  several  times.  The  exact  number 
of  times  will  depend  upon  the  experience  of  the  speaker 


90  ORAL  ENGLISH 

and  the  importance  of  the  occasion.  The  beginner  should 
repeat  his  speech  not  less  than  five  times.  This  practice 
will  accustom  the  speaker  to  the  sound  of  his  own  voice 
and  give  him  confidence  and  fluency. 

There  are,  however,  two  dangers  in  oral  composition 
against  which  the  student  must  guard  himself.  He  may- 
have  a  tendency  to  repeat  aloud  crude  or  ungrammatical 
expressions.  To  avoid  this,  he  should  think  a  sentence 
through  before  he  utters  it.  The  untrained  speaker  is 
afraid  that  a  pause  will  be  considered  hesitation,  and  so 
often  rushes  headlong  into  the  expression  of  a  thought 
before  it  has  matured  in  his  own  mind.  The  polished, 
extemporaneous  speaker,  on  the  other  hand,  pauses  long 
between  his  sentences,  well  knowing  that  the  audience  will 
have  no  quarrel  with  him  for  his  deliberation.  The  second 
danger  is  quite  the  opposite  of  the  first.  He  may  hold  so 
critical  an  attitude  toward  his  own  work  that  he  will  be 
led  to  reconstruct  a  sentence  in  the  midst  of  it.  To 
avoid  this,  he  should  compel  himself  to  finish  a  sentence, 
no  matter  how  poorly  it  may  have  been  commenced.  It 
will  be  possible  to  make  mental  note  of  the  error  and 
correct  it  during  the  next  practice. 

The  student  should  not  be  discouraged  if  he  does  not 
repeat  the  speech  twice  in  the  same  words.  In  fact,  this 
may  be  an  evidence  of  freedom  and  growth.  The  purpose 
of  the  repetition  is  not  to  memorize  a  certain  phraseology, 
but  to  develop  the  power  of  expression.  If  the  student's 
mind  is  active,  the  speech  will  gradually  assume  a  some- 
what definite  shape,  which  will  be  the  speaker's  best 
form  of  expression  at  the  given  time. 

Outline  Memorized.  —  The  last  step  in  preparation  is 
to  write  the  word-outline  from  memory.     This  memorized 


OR.\L  PREPARATION  91 

outline  should  record  any  changes  which  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  make  during  the  oral  practice. 

A  speaker  should  be  absolutely  independent  of  an 
outline;  for  attention  to  notes  takes  his  eyes  from  his 
audience  and  subtracts  just  so  much  from  the  personal 
element.  In  commenting  on  speeches  delivered  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  Charles  Seymour  says,  "The  speeches 
that  were  really  listened  to,  that  were  enjoyed,  that  carried 
the  force  of  conviction,  were  the  speeches  that  were  spoken 
without  reference  to  notes."  Thomas  W.  Higginson 
discusses  this  same  matter  as  follows:  "Never  carry  a 
scrap  of  paper  before  an  audience.  The  late  Judge  B.  R. 
Curtis  once  lost  a  case  in  court  of  which  he  had  felt  very 
sure  —  one  in  which  John  P.  Hale  was  his  successful 
antagonist.  When  asked  the  reason,  he  said,  'I  had  all 
the  law  and  all  the  evidence,  but  that  fellow  Hale  some- 
how got  so  intimate  with  the  jury  that  he  won  the  case.' 
To  be  intimate  with  your  audience  is  half  the  battle,  and 
nothing  so  restricts  and  impedes  that  intimacy  as  the 
presence  of  a  scrap  of  paper."  On  very  important  occa- 
sions one  may  have  an  outline  within  reach,  but  he 
should  strive  to  be  independent  of  it. 

II.   Value  as  Compared  with  the  Memoriter  Method 

The  extempore  method  of  preparation  is  better  than 
the  method  of  writing  and  memorizing  a  speech  in  several 
respects: 

A  Saver  of  Time.  -  When  one  writes  a  speech,  he  often 
fmds  that  it  is  necessary  to  rewrite  long  passages.  When 
the  speech  is  fmishcd,  he  discovers  that  it  is  too  long  and 
must  be  condensed,  or  that  certain  portions  need  elabora- 
tion.    Perhaps  whole  paragraphs  must  be  copied  verbatim 


92  ORAL  ENGLISH 

in  order  that  these  changes  may  be  made.  When,  however, 
one  composes  a  speech  by  the  oral,  or  extempore  method, 
the  work  of  correction  is  a  very  simple  matter.  It  is  nec- 
essary only  to  add,  or  cross  out,  or  change  the  position  of  a 
few  words  in  the  outline  and  the  revision  is  complete. 

A  Better  Speech.  —  Furthermore,  a  speech  prepared 
in  this  way  is  likely  to  produce  a  better  impression 
upon  the  audience  than  one  which  has  been  written  and 
memorized.  In  the  first  place,  the  delivery  will  be  better: 
it  will  be  more  conversational  in  tone,  since  the  mind, 
during  the  period  of  preparation,  has  been  centered  upon 
the  thought  rather  than  upon  the  words.  Again,  the 
speaker  is  not  likely  to  become  lost  and  forget  his  speech 
entirely  as  might  be  the  case  with  a  memorized  speech. 
The  extempore  practice  has  served  not  only  to  impress 
the  organization  of  his  thought  upon  his  mind,  but  also 
to  give  him  confidence  in  himself  so  that  if  he  fails  on  the 
platform  to  recall  the  prepared  words  he  can  supply 
others  of  equal  merit. 

In  the  second  place,  the  style  of  a  speech  which  has  been 
composed  orally  has  a  tendency  to  be  more  direct  and 
forcible  and  better  suited  to  public  utterance.  When  one 
writes,  he  is  tempted  to  construct  sentences  which  are  long 
and  involved.  These,  when  delivered,  give  to  the  speech 
an  air  of  bookishness  and  take  from  it  the  appearance  of 
spontaneity  which  the  speaker  desires. 

In  the  third  place,  the  speech  is  more  flexible;  that  is, 
it  can  more  readily  be  adapted  to  the  occasion.  The 
speaker  may  insert  ideas  suggested  by  other  numbers  on 
the  program,  or  if  the  time  is  short  he  may  omit  unneces- 
sary portions  of  his  subject.  Neither  of  these  things  could 
he  do  if  he  were  in  the  grip  of  a  memorized  speech. 


ORAL  PREPARATION  93 

Growth  of  the  Speaker.  —  Above  all,  the  extempore 
method  is  the  only  method  which  insures  the  growth  of 
the  speaker.  A  man  may  spend  a  lifetime  in  writing  and 
memorizing  speeches  and  still  be  without  extemporaneous 
power.  This  power  "to  think  on  one's  feet,"  comes 
gradually  as  a  result  of  practice  and  confidence.  As 
Sir  Francis  Bacon  says,  "Reading  maketh  a  full  man, 
writing,  an  exact  man,  and  speaking,  a  ready  man." 
This  is  shown  in  the  lives  of  great  orators.  Webster  and 
Lincoln,  very  early  in  life,  were  members  of  debating 
clubs.  Charles  James  Fox,  the  greatest  debater  of  his 
day,  made  it  a  rule  to  speak  once  each  night  in 
Parliament. 

The  ordinary  student,  however,  is  not  provided  with  a 
Parliament  ready  to  hand  and  so  must  furnish  himself 
with  an  imaginary  audience.  This  repeated  practice 
gives  the  speaker  confidence  when  he  appears  before  a 
real  audience.  As  Nathan  Sheppard  says,  "To  realize 
their  presence  in  an  eft'ort  of  the  imagination  is  to  for- 
tify against  their  faces  in  the  flesh."  Each  time  the 
student  rehearses  before  his  imaginary  hearers  he  gains 
power  to  master  both  himself  and  some  future  audience. 

in.   When  a  Speech  may  be  Written 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  speech  prepared  for  the  classroom 
should  never  be  written  before  it  is  dehvered,  although  to 
write  it  after  it  is  delivered  is  a  very  profitable  exercise 
in  written  composition. 

For  important  occasions,  however,  the  speech  may  be 
written  before  delivery,  but  only  as  a  last  step  in  the 
preparation,  after  all  has  been  done  that  can  be  done  by 
the    method    of    extemporaneous    practice.     It    may    be 


94  ORAL  ENGLISH 

possible  by  writing  out  the  speech  at  the  last  to  secure 
a  diction  that  is  more  concise  and  elegant,  and  at  the 
same  time  not  to  lose  the  value  of  the  extemporaneous 
practice.  The  speech  will  then  be  in  form  to  preserve  or 
publish. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
how  to  prepare  a  speech  orally  from  an  outline,  (2)  why 
this  method  is  better  than  that  of  writing  and  memoriz- 
ing, and  (3)  under  what  circumstances  and  at  what  period 
of  preparation  a  speech  may  be  written. 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Oral  Preparation 

Introduction. 

I.   The  impromptu  method  of  practice. 

A.  Use  of. 

B.  Merits  and  demerits. 

II.   Extempore  method  —  briefly  defined. 
III.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   Description  of  the  extempore  method. 

A.  Mental  preparation. 

1.  Purpose. 

2.  Care  illustrated. 

3.  Polishing  without  a  pen. 

B.  Oral  practice. 

1.  Number  of  times. 

2.  Two  dangers. 

3.  Discouragement. 

C.  Outline  memorized. 

1.  Changes. 

2.  Value  of  independence  of  outHne. 

(a)    Seymour. 
Q))    Higginson. 


ORAL  PREPARATION  95 

II,   Value  as  compared  with  the  memoriter  method. 

A.  A  saver  of  time.  —  Difficulty  of  revising  a  manuscript. 

B.  A  better  speech. 

1.  Delivery. 

(a)  Conversational  «tyle. 

(b)  Greater  confidence. 

2.  Style  —  compared  with  written. 

3.  Flexibility. 

C.  Growth  of  the  speaker. 

1.  Two  causes. 

(a)  Bacon. 

(b)  Experience  of  orators. 

2.  Imaginary  and  real  audiences. 
III.   When  a  speech  may  be  written. 

A.  Classroom  work. 

B.  Important  occasions. 

Conclusion  —  Summary. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Prepare  a.  two-minute  speech  by  the  extempore 
method,  using  the  outline  which  you  made  in  connection  with  the 
preceding  chapter.  Time  yourself.  Be  sure  to  bring  the  speech 
within  the  recjuired  limit.  Have  your  outline  ready  to  hand  in  at 
the  beginning  of  the  period. 

As  the  speeches  are  given  in  class,  each  student  should  make  note 
of  criticisms  in  his  loose-leaf  notcljook  and  preserve  ihem  until  after 
they  have  been  discussed  in  class. 

Answer  the  following  questions  with  reference  to  each  speech: 

1.  Did  it  have  unity?  If  so,  the  critic  should  be  able  to  state  the 
main  idea. 

2.  Was  it  well  arranged?  If  it  was,  the  critic  should  be  able  to 
give  one  example  of  coherence  or  emphasis. 

,3.  Did  it  contain  concrete  material?  If  so,  the  critic  should  be 
able  to  mention  some  illustration  or  some  picture-making  word. 

In  these  and  future  criticisms,  do  not  niilkc  loo  much  use  of  the 
words  gooil  and  poor.     Say,  rather,  (hat  the  speech  was  eilher 


96  ORAL  ENGLISH 

1.  Clear  or  confused. 

2.  Smooth  or  disjointed. 

3.  Concrete  or  dry. 

4.  Direct  and  conversational,  or  bookish. 

5.  Compact  or  wordy. 

6.  Earnest  or  tame. 

It  is  well  to  give  favorable  criticisms  before  adverse  criticisms, 
for  the  one  who  is  criticized  will  listen  more  willingly,  if  he  knows 
that  his  good  points  are  appreciated.  Again,  the  critic  should  be 
looking  for  the  good  in  order  that  he  may  imitate  it. 


READING    LESSON    V  97 

READING   LESSON   V 
Narratives 

1.  "Conservatism,"  by  George  William  Curtis: 

"A  friend  of  mine  was  a  student  of  Couture,  the  painter,  in"  Paris. 
One  day  the  master  came  and  looked  over  the  pupil's  drawing  and  said 
to  him,  'My  friend,  that  line  should  go  so';  and  indicated  it  lightly 
on  the  paper  with  his  pencil.  To  prove  the  accuracy  of  the  master's 
eye,  the  pupil  rubbed  out  the  correction  and  left  the  hne.  The  next 
day  Couture  came,  and  looking  over  the  drawing,  stopped  in  surprise. 
'That's  curious,'  said  he,  'I  thought  I  altered  that.  This  line  goes 
so,'  he  added,  and  drew  it  firmly  in  black  upon  the  paper.  Again  the 
pupil  rubbed  out  the  correction.  The  next  day  the  master  came 
again,  stopped  short  when  he  saw  the  drawing,  looked  at  it  a  moment 
without  speaking;  then,  with  his  thumb-nail,  he  cut  quite  through 
the  paper.  'That's  the  way  this  line  ought  to  go,'  he  said,  and 
passed  on. 

"So  the  hearts  and  minds  of  our  fathers  marked  the  line  of  our 
true  development.  Conservatism  rubbed  it  out.  The  Missouri 
struggle  emphasized  the  line  again.  Conservatism  rubbed  it  out. 
The  Kansas  struggle  drew  the  line  more  sternly.  Conservatism 
rubbed  it  out.  Then,  at  last,  the  Divine  finger  drew  in  fire  and  blood, 
sharply,  sharply,  through  our  wailing  homes,  through  our  torn  and 
bleeding  country,  through  our  very  quivering  hearts,  the  line  of  lib- 
erty, and  justice,  and  equal  rights,  and  conservatism  might  as  well 
try  to  rub  out  the  rainbow  from  the  heavens,  as  to  erase  this,  the 
decision  of  the  age." 

2.  From  a  eulogy  of  Daniel  O'Connell  by  Wendell  Phillips: 

"Besides  his  irreproachable  character,  O'Connell  had  what  is  half 
the  power  of  the  popular  orator;  he  had  a  majestic  presence.  In 
his  youth  he  had  the  brow  of  a  Jupiter  or  a  Jove,  and  the  stature  of 
Apollo.     A  little  O'Connell  would  have  been  no  O'Connell  at  all. 

"These  physical  advantages  are  half  the  battle.  You  remember 
the  story  Russell  Lowell  tells  of  Webster  when,  a  year  or  two  before 
his  death,  the  Whig  party  though)  of  dissolution.  Webster  came 
home  from  Washington  and  wcnl  down  to  I'aiu'uil  Hall  to  protest; 


98  ORAL  ENGLISH 

and  four  thousand  of  his  fellow  Whigs  went  out  to  meet  him.  Draw- 
ing himself  up  to  his  loftiest  proportions,  his  brow  charged  with 
thunder,  before  that  sea  of  human  faces,  he  said:  '  Gentlemen,  I  am 
a  Whig,  a  Massachusetts  Whig;  a  Faneuil  Hall  Whig;  a  Revolution- 
ary Whig;  a  constitutional  Whig;  and  if  you  break  up  the  Whig 
party,,  where  am  I  to  go?'  'We  held  our  breath,'  says  Lowell, 
'thinking  where  he  could  go.  If  he  had  been  five  feet  three,  we 
should  have  said,  "Who  cares  where  you  go?"' 

"Well,  O'Connell  had  all  that.  There  was  something  majestic 
in  his  presence  before  he  spoke,  and  he  added  to  it  what  Webster  had 
not,  —  the  magnetism  and  grace  that  melts  a  million  souls  into  his. 

"  Then  he  had  a  voice  that  covered  the  gamut.  Speaking  in  Exeter 
Hall,  London,  I  once  heard  him  say,  'I  send  my  voice  across  the  At- 
lantic, careering  like  the  thunderstorm  against  the  breeze,  to  tell  the 
slaveholder  of  the  Carolinas  that  God's  thunderbolts  are  hot,  and  to 
remind  the  bondman  that  the  dawn  of  his  redemption  is  already 
breaking,'  and  you  seemed  to  hear  his  voice  reverberating  and  re- 
echoing back  to  London  from  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Then,  with 
the  slightest  possible  Irish  brogue,  he  would  tell  a  story  that  would 
make  all  Exeter  Hall  laugh.  The  next  moment,  tears  in  his  voice, 
like  an  old  song,  and  five  thousand  men  wept.  All  the  while  no 
efi^ort  —  he  seemed  only  breathing,  — 

'  As  effortless  as  woodland  nooks 
Send  violets  up,  and  paint  them  blue.' " 

3.  From  an  Address  to  the  Jury  at  the  White  Murder  Trial,  by 
Daniel  Webster: 

"The  circumstances  now  clearly  in  evidence  spread  out  the  whole 
scene  before  us.  Deep  sleep  had  fallen  on  the  destined  victim  and  on 
all  beneath  his  roof.  A  healthful  old  man  to  whom  sleep  was  sweet, 
the  first  sound  slumbers  of  the  night  held  him  in  their  soft  but  strong 
embrace.  The  assassin  enters,  through  the  window  already  prepared, 
into  an  unoccupied  apartment.  With  noiseless  foot  he  paces  the 
lonely  hall  half  lighted  by  the  moon.  He  winds  up  the  ascent  of  the 
stairs  and  reaches  the  door  of  the  chamber.  He  enters  and  beholds 
his  \actim  before  him.  The  face  of  the  innocent  sleeper  is  turned 
from  the  murderer,  and  the  beams  of  the  moon,  resting  on  the  gray 


READING    LESSON    V  99 

locks  of  the  aged  temples,  show  him  where  to  strike.  The  fatal  blow 
is  given.  Without  a  struggle  or  a  motion  the  victim  passes  from  the 
repose  of  sleep  to  the  repose  of  death.  The  murderer  retreats,  re- 
traces his  steps  to  the  window,  passes  out  through  it  as  he  came  in, 
and  escapes." 

Descriptions 

4.  The  Home  and  the  Republic,  from  an  address  delivered  at 
Elberton,  Georgia,  in  June,  1889,  by  Henry  W.  Grady: 

"I  went  to  Washington  the  other  day,  and  as  I  stood  on  Capitol 
Hill  my  heart  beat  quick  as  I  looked  at  the  towering  marble  of  my 
country's  Capitol.  The  mist  gathered  in  my  eyes  as  I  thought  of 
its  tremendous  significance,  —  the  army,  the  Treasury',  the  courts, 
Congress,  the  President,  and  all  that  was  gathered  there.  I  felt 
that  the  sun  in  all  its  course  could  not  look  down  upon  a  better  sight 
than  that  majestic  home  of  the  Republic  that  had  taught  the  world 
its  best  lessons  in  liberty. 

"Two  days  afterwards  I  went  to  visit  a  friend  in  the  country,  — 
a  modest  man,  with  a  quiet  country  home.  It  was  just  a  simple, 
unpretentious  house,  set  about  with  great  big  trees,  encircled  in 
meadow  and  field  rich  with  the  promise  of  harvest.  The  fragrance 
of  pink  and  hollyhock  in  the  front  yard  was  mingled  with  the  aroma 
of  the  orchard  and  of  the  garden.  The  air  was  resonant  with  the 
cluck  of  poultry  and  the  hum  of  bees.  Inside  was  quiet,  cleanhness, 
thrift,  and  comfort.  Outside  there  stood  my  friend  —  master  of 
his  land  and  master  of  himself.  There  was  his  old  father,  an  aged, 
trembling  man,  happy  in  the  heart  and  home  of  his  son.  I  saw  the 
night  come  down  on  that  home,  falling  gently  as  from  the  wings  of  an 
unseen  dove.  The  old  man,  while  a  startled  bird  called  from  the 
forest,  and  the  trees  shrilled  with  the  cricket's  cry,  and  the  stars  were 
swarming  in  the  sky,  got  the  family  around  him,  and  taking  the  old 
Bible  from  the  table,  called  them  to  their  knees,  while  he  closed  the 
record  of  that  simple  day  by  calling  down  God's  blessing  on  that 
family  and  that  home. 

"While  1  gazed,  the  vision  of  the  marble  Capitol  faded.  lorgotlcn 
were  its  trea.sures  and  its  majesty,  and  I  said,  'O,  surely,  here  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people  at  last  are  lodged  the  strength  and  responsibili- 
ties of  this  government,  the  hope  and  promise  of  this  Repubhc. '" 


loo  ORAL  ENGLISH 

5.  Description  of  Robert  E.  Lee,  by  John  W.  Daniel: 

"In  personal  appearance  General  Lee  was  a  man  whom  once  to 
see  was  ever  to  remember.  His  figure  was  tall,  erect,  well  propor- 
tioned, lithe,  and  graceful.  A  fine  head,  with  broad,  uplifted  brows, 
and  features  boldly  yet  delicately  chiselled,  bore  the  aspect  of  one 
born  to  command.  His  whole  countenance  bespoke  alike  a  powerful 
mind  and  an  indomitable  will,  yet  beamed  with  charity,  benevolence, 
and  gentleness.  In  his  manners,  quiet  reserve,  unaffected  courtesy, 
and  native  dignity  made  manifest  the  character  of  one  who  can  only 
be  described  by  the  name  of  gentleman." 

6.  Description  of  Havana,  by  Senator  A.  B.  Cummins: 

"General  Lee,  after  a  cheery  conversation,  parted  the  window 
curtains  and  invited  his  visitors  to  a  tiny  balcony  overhanging  the 
the  street.  The  \aew  was  enlivening.  The  Prado  was  bathed  in 
the  effulgence  of  electric  lights,  and  the  statue  of  Isabella  adorning 
the  oblong  park  fronting  the  hotel  looked  like  an  alabaster  figure. 
All  was  life  and  activity.  A  cool  breeze  came  from  the  ocean.  A 
stream  of  well-dressed  ladies  and  gentlemen  poured  along  the  Prado  — 
the  dark-eyed  sefioras  and  senoritas  with  coquettish  veils,  volunteers, 
regulars,  and  d\n\  guards,  in  tasty  uniforms,  and  a  cosmopolitan 
sprinkling  of  Englishmen,  Germans,  French,  Italians,  and  other 
nationalities,  Americans  being  conspicuous.  Low-wheeled  carriages 
rattled  over  the  pavements  in  scores,  many  filled  wath  ladies  eti  masque 
on  their  way  to  the  ball.  Occasionally  the  notes  of  a  bugle  were 
heard,  and  anon  the  cries  of  negro  newsboys,  shouting  'La  Lucha!'" 

7.  "A  Vision  of  War,"  by  Robert  G.  Ingersoll: 

"The  past  rises  before  me  like  a  dream.  Again  we  are  in  the 
great  struggle  for  national  life.  We  hear  the  sounds  of  preparation  — 
the  music  of  boisterous  drums  —  the  silver  voices  of  heroic  bugles. 
We  see  thousands  of  assemblages,  and  hear  the  appeals  of  orators. 
We  see  the  pale  cheeks  of  women,  and  the  flushed  faces  of  men;  in 
those  assemblages  we  see  all  the  dead  whose  dust  we  have  covered  with 
flowers.  We  lose  sight  of  them  no  more.  We  are  with  them  when 
they  enlist  in  the  great  army  of  freedom.  We  see  them  part  with 
those  they  love.  Some  are  walking  for  the  last  time  in  quiet  woody 
places,  with  the  maidens  they  adore.     We  hear  the  whisperings  and 


READING    LESSON    V  loi 

the  sweet  vows  of  eternal  love  as  they  lingeringly  part  forever.  Others 
are  bending  over  cradles,  kissing  babes  that  are  asleep.  Some  are 
receiving  the  blessing  of  old  men.  Some  are  parting  with  mothers 
who  hold  them  and  press  them  to  their  hearts  again  and  again  and 
say  nothing.  Kisses  and  tears,  divine  mingling  of  agony  and  love! 
Some  are  talking  with  wives,  and  endeavoring  with  brave  words, 
spoken  in  old  tones,  to  drive  from  their  hearts  the  awful  fear.  We 
see  them  part.  We  see  the  ^\'ife  standing  in  the  door  \Wth  the  babe 
in  her  arms  —  standing  in  the  sunlight  sobbing.  At  the  turn  of  the 
road,  a  hand  waves  —  she  answers  by  holding  high  in  her  loving 
arms,  the  child.     He  is  gone,  and  forever." 


CHAPTER   IX 

HOW  TO   PLAN  A   STORY   OR  A  DESCRIPTION 

Introduction.  —  A  good  speaker  uses  many  short 
stories  and  descriptions.  These  two  forms  of  discourse 
are  powerful  because  they  make  mental  pictures.  Dick- 
ens, as  we  saw  in  an  earlier  chapter,  made  a  deeper 
impression  by  his  picture  of  the  sufferings  of  one  little 
child  in  Edinburgh  than  he  did  by  the  statement  that 
there  were  thousands  of  miserable  children  in  London. 

A  speaker's  purpose  in  using  these  forms  may  be  to 
arouse  feeling,  as  in  the  case  just  cited,  or  it  may  be  merely 
to  make  his  idea  more  clear  and  impressive.  Wendell 
Phillips,  for  instance,  quoted  the  story  of  Webster  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  that  a  large  man  would  have  more 
power  over  his  audience  than  a  small  one.  Grady  used 
a  description  to  make  it  clear  that  the  strength  of  the 
nation  is  to  be  found  in  its  homes. 

A  good  story  or  description  has  the  same  three  qualities 
that  are  found  in  a  good  exposition  or  argument,  namely, 
unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  In  this  chapter  we  shall 
learn  how  to  get  these  three  qualities  when  we  make  a  plan. 

I.   Narration 

Unity.  —  A  short  story,  in  order  to  have  unity,  must 
consist  of  a  single  incident.  This  is  merely  one  way  of 
saying  that  it  should  occur  within  a  brief  space  of  time, 
that  the  action  should  center  about  one  particular  place, 
and  that  there  should  be  a  central  character. 


PLAXXING  A  STORY  OR  A  DESCRIPTION      103 

The  story  should  also  have  a  point,  or  meaning.  The 
speaker  should  be  able  to  state  this  point  in  a  theme 
sentence,  although  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  do  so 
while  telhng  the  story.  This  warning  is  illustrated  by 
the  prayer  of  Henry  Van  Dyke:  "Lord,  let  me  never 
tag  a  moral  to  a  story,  nor  tell  a  story  without  a  mean- 
ing." The  theme  of  Curtis's  story  might  be,  "The  eye 
of  the  master  artist  is  correct."  The  point  in  Webster's 
story  of  the  murder  was,  "The  deed  was  prearranged  and 
committed  in  a  stealthy  and  cowardly  manner."  The 
story  of  Barbara  Frietchie  might  be  condensed  into  the  sen- 
tence, "The  courage  and  patriotism  of  Barbara  Frietchie 
compelled  even  a  rebel  leader  to  do  her  homage." 

Coherence.  —  The  problem  of  securing  a  coherent 
arrangement  is  not  so  difficult  in  a  story  as  it  is  in  the 
other  forms  of  discourse,  since  the  time  order  is  the  natural 
one  to  follow.  The  only  danger  is  that  some  incident 
which  is  not  a  link  in  the  chain  may  find  a  place  in  the 
story.  In  order  that  the  story  should  move  on  toward 
the  climax,  each  happening  should  be  a  result  of  some 
earlier  event  and  the  cause  of  a  later  one.  Facts  which 
do  not  help  the  story  along  in  this  way  should  be  omitted, 
for  they  interfere  with  its  coherence. 

Emphasis.  —  The  quality  of  emphasis,  as  we  learned  in 
a  previous  chapter,  means  gradually  increasing  force.  It 
can  be  gained  in  a  story  by  reserving  the  point  until  the 
last.  The  events  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  keep  the 
listener  in  suspense  until  the  climax  is  reached,  at  which 
place  the  point,  or  meaning  of  the  story,  is  revealed.  In 
the  story  of  Couture,  the  climax  is  found  in  the  sentence, 
"Then,  with  his  thumb-nail,  he  cut  quite  through  the 
paper."      In    the   story   about   Webster,    "Wc   held   our 


I04  ORAL  ENGLISH 

breath,  thinking  where  he  could  go"  seems  to  reveal  the 
point  of  the  story.  In  Webster's  story  of  the  murder,  "The 
fatal  blow  is  given"  marks  the  highest  point  of  interest. 

II.   Description 

Unity.  —  A  good  description  has  within  it  some  unifying 
idea;  that  is,  it  leaves  with  the  listener  a  very  definite 
impression.  This  result  is  gained  by  the  fact  that  the 
speaker  has  chosen  from  among  numerous  details  those 
which  will  tend  to  deepen  the  impression  that  he  wishes 
to  make.  The  artist  in  colors  does  not  paint  Nature 
exactly  as  it  is;  he  chooses  and  arranges  those  features 
of  the  landscape  which  can  be  fitted  into  his  conception  of 
beauty.  So  with  the  descriptive  artist:  he  should  not 
record  everything  which  may  be  seen,  but  he  should  direct 
attention  to  those  details  which  tend  to  make  prominent 
a  certain  idea.  Thus  Wendell  Phillips,  in  his  description 
of  Webster,  might  have  told  us  the  color  of  his  hair  or 
eyes,  but  because  his  purpose  was  to  give  an  impression 
of  power,  he  mentioned  only  the  lofty  proportions  and 
the  brow  charged  with  thunder.  In  Senator  Cummins' 
description  of  Havana,  the  unifying  idea  is  that  of  life 
and  activity,  whereas  in  Robert  Ingersoll's  "Vision  of 
War"  the  central  thought  is  the  sadness  of  farewell. 

Again,  a  good  description,  like  a  good  picture,  contains 
a  central  object  of  interest.  In  Dickens'  description 
of  the  wretched  hovel,  it  is  the  child  in  the  egg-box;  in 
Grady's  picture  of  the  country  home,  it  is  the  old  man 
with  the  Bible;  in  "A  Vision  of  War,"  it  is  the  wife  with 
the  babe  in  her  arms. 

Coherence.  —  When  we  studied  exposition  and  argu- 
ment we  learned  that  one  could  gain  coherence  by  men- 


PLANNING  A  STORY  OR  A  DESCRIPTION      105 

tioning  the  general  before  the  particular.  The  same  is 
true  of  descriptive  discourse.  The  speaker  should  give 
a  general  v^iew  before  going  into  details.  ]\Ir.  Daniel, 
for  example,  begins  his  portraiture  of  Robert  E.  Lee  with 
the  sentences,  "In  personal  appearance,  General  Lee  was 
a  man  whom  once  to  see  was  ever  to  remember.  His 
figure,  etc."  This  order  is  easier  to  follow  and  therefore 
more  coherent,  because  it  is  the  order  in  which  one  gains 
a  mental  picture  of  an  object  which  is  actually  before 
his  eyes.  As  one  approaches  a  building,  for  instance,  he 
notices  at  first  glance  the  general  form,  size,  and  color. 
Later,  he  observes  details.  Victor  Hugo  begins  his  famous 
description  of  the  field  of  Waterloo  by  stating  that  it  was 
shaped  Hke  a  capital  A. 

In  order  that  the  listeners  may  the  more  easily  follow 
the  description,  the  speaker  should  observe  the  following 
three  rules:  (i)  he  should  proceed  with  the  details  in 
some  definite  order,  as,  near  to  far,  left  to  right,  etc.; 
(2)  he  should  not  change  his  own  point  of  view  without 
notifying  his  audience  of  the  change;  and  (3)  he  should 
not  describe  details  which  cannot  be  seen  from  the  point 
of  view  which  he  has  chosen. 

Emphasis.  —  The  quality  of  emphasis  will  be  present 
in  a  description  if  the  most  impressive  detail  is  given  last 
and  treated  at  greater  length.  If  the  student  will  again 
examine  Dickens'  description  of  the  wretched  dwelling 
in  Edinburgh,  Grady's  sketch  of  a  country  home,  and 
Ingersoll's  "Vision  of  War,"  he  will  fmd  that  this  i)lan 
has  been  followed  in  each  case.  The  central  ligure  is 
mentioned  last  and  more  time  and  greater  care  is  given 
to  its  delineation. 

Conclusion.       In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  how  to 


io6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

plan  a  story  or  a  description  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure 
the  three  desirable  qualities  —  unity,  coherence,  and  em- 
phasis. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

How  TO  Plan  a  Story  or  a  Description 

Introduction. 

I.   Picture-making  value. 
II.   Two  purposes  illustrated. 
III.    Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   Narration. 

A.  Unity. 

1.  Single  incident. 

2.  Point  or  meaning. 

B.  Coherence. 

1.  Time  order. 

2.  Quality  of  moving  on. 

C.  Emphasis. 

1 .  Meaning. 

2.  Method  of  gaining.  —  Illustrations. 
II.   Description. 

A.  Unity. 

1.  Unifying  idea,  or  impression. 

2.  Central  object  of  interest. 

B.  Coherence. 

1 .  General  idea  before  details. 

2.  Three  rules  for  details. 

C.  Emphasis. 

I.    Necessity  of  two  things. 
Conchision. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Let  the  class  be  divided  into  three  sections.  Let 
each  section  read  one  of  the  following  Bible  stories:  The  Sword  of 
the  Lord  and  of  Gideon  (Judges,  vii.,  1-22);  Absalom,  My  Son  (2 
Samuel,  xviii) ;  The  Handwriting  on  the  Wall  {Daniel,  v). 


PLANNING  A  STORY  OR  A  DESCRIPTION      107 

Study  the  story  which  has  been  assigned  to  you.  Be  able  to  tell 
it  in  your  own  words  in  not  more  than  three  minutes.  Make  a  word 
outline  of  the  stor>'  and  practice  from  it  as  directed  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  The  introduction  to  a  story  usually  includes  the  time, 
the  place,  and  the  characters.  The  body  may  be  divided  into  initial 
incident,  rising  action,  and  falling  action. 

Be  prepared  to  answer  the  following  questions  about  the  story 
which  you  have  studied: 

1.  What  is  the  theme  of  the  story? 

2.  Is  it  a  single  incident,  i.e.  does  it  occur  within  a  brief  space 
of  time,  at  a  particular  place,  and  does  it  center  about  one  character? 

3.  Is  there  any  event  which  is  not  a  necessary  link  in  the  chain? 

4.  What  is  the  climax  of  the  story?  Is  the  point  reserved  until 
the  last? 

Exercise  III.  —  Reproduce  some  story  or  description  suggested 
in  the  tirst  three  divisions  of  Appendix  III.  Make  a  word  outline 
as  before.  If  you  cannot  handle  your  subject  efifectively  in  two 
minutes,  condense  it.  Write  a  theme  sentence  but,  if  it  is  a  story, 
do  not  use  it  in  the  telling. 

Exercise  IV.  —  Imagine  that  the  class  is  gathered  around  a  camp 
fire  and  that  each  is  expected  to  tell  some  experience,  making  it 
as  entertaining  as  possible.  Look  for  suggestions  in  divisions  four 
and  five  of  Appendix  IIL  Prepare  by  making  a  word  outline  and 
bring  the  telling  within  three  minutes. 

Exercise  V.  —  Present  some  idea,  using  a  narrative  or  description 
to  make  the  idea  more  clear  and  attractive.  This  was  done  in  Ex- 
tracts I,  2,  and  4  of  Reading  Lesson  V,  (pages  97-98). 


io8  ORAL  ENGLISH 


READING   LESSON   VI 


1.  From  Macaulay: 

"The  advocates  of  Charles  the  First,  Hke  the  advocates  of  other 
malefactors  against  whom  overwhelming  evidence  is  produced,  gen- 
erally decline  all  controversy  about  the  facts,  and  content  themselves 
with  calling  testimony  to  character.  He  had  so  many  private  virtues! 
And  had  James  the  Second  no  private  virtues?  Was  Oliver  Crom- 
well, his  bitterest  enemies  themselves  being  judges,  destitute  of 
private  virtues? 

"And  what  are  the  virtues  ascribed  to  Charles?  A  religious 
zeal,  not  more  sincere  than  that  of  his  son,  and  fully  as  weak  and 
narrow-minded,  and  a  few  of  the  ordinary  household  decencies  which 
half  the  tombstones  in  England  claim  for  those  who  lie  beneath  them. 
A  good  father!  A  good  husband!  Ample  apologies  indeed  for  fifteen 
years  of  persecution,  tyranny,  and  falsehood! 

"We  charge  him  with  having  broken  his  coronation  oath;  and  we 
are  told  that  he  kept  his  marriage  vow.  We  accuse  him  of  having 
given  up  his  people  to  the  merciless  inflictions  of  the  most  hot-headed 
and  hard-hearted  of  prelates;  and  the  defense  is,  that  he  took  his  little 
son  on  his  knee  and  kissed  him.  We  censure  him  for  having  violated 
the  articles  of  the  Petition  of  Right,  after  having,  for  good  and  valu- 
able consideration,  promised  to  observe  them;  and  we  are  informed 
that  he  was  accustomed  to  hear  prayers  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
It  is  to  such  considerations  as  these,  together  with  his  Vandyke  dress, 
his  handsome  face,  and  his  peaked  beard,  that  he  owes,  we  verily 
believe,  most  of  his  popularity  with  the  present  generation." 

2.  Phillips  Brooks,  in  his  address  to  young  men  on  "  The  Symmetry 
of  Life,"  says  that  the  symmetrical  life  should  have  three  dimensions, 
length,  breadth,  and  height.  By  length,  he  means  purpose;  by 
breadth,  sympathy  for  our  fellows;  by  height,  love  to  God.  He 
closes  as  follows: 

"Do  not  dare  to  live  without  some  clear  intention  toward  which 
your  living  shall  be  bent.  Mean  to  do  something  with  all  your  might. 
Do  not  add  act  to  act  and  day  to  day  in  perfect  thoughtlessness,  never 
asking  yourself  whither  the  growing  Hne  is  leading.  But  at  the  same 
time  do  not  dare  to  be  so  absorbed  in  your  own  life,  so  wrapped  up 


READING   LESSON    VI  109 

in  listening  to  the  sound  of  your  own  hurrying  heels,  that  all  this 
vast  pathetic  music,  made  up  of  the  mingled  joy  and  sorrow  of  your 
fellowmen,  shall  not  find  out  your  heart  and  claim  it  and  make  you 
rejoice  to  give  yourself  for  them.  And  yet,  aU  the  while  keep  the 
upward  windows  open.  Do  not  dare  to  think  that  a  child  of  God 
can  worthily  work  out  his  own  career  or  worthily  serve  God's  other 
children  unless  he  does  both  in  the  love  and  fear  of  God  their  Father." 

3.  W.  J.  Fox  before  the  first  meeting  of  the  Corn  Law  League,  in 
1843: 

"The  supporters  of  the  Corn  Laws  are  very  fond  of  complaining  of 
the  long  speeches  made  by  the  Leaguers  against  them  when  they 
know  they  have  nothing  novel  to  say.  Now,  I  should  be  very  glad 
to  effect  a  compromise  with  those  objectors.  I  should  be  very  ready 
to  say  to  them,  'if  you  will  spare  our  pockets,  we  will  spare  your 
intellects.  If  you  will  allow  the  people's  mouths  to  be  filled,  we  will 
abstain  from  filling  your  ears  with  their  remonstrances.  If  you  will 
untax  our  bread,  we  will  no  longer  tax  your  patience.' 

"Even  the  bread  that  is  given  in  charity  must  first  pay  the  tax 
imposed  by  these  laws;  and  if,  by  a  royal  begging  letter,  some  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  pounds  are  collected  for  the  poor  of  Paisley, 
why,  the  rapacity  of  this  dominant  class  must  needs  step  in  and  take 
some  £30,000  of  the  money  thus  bestowed  in  charity.  That  Book 
which  we  profess  to  revere  tells  us  to  pray  for  our  daily  bread;  there- 
fore it  cannot  possibly  teach  men  to  tax  our  daily  bread.  There  is 
one  precept  in  that  Book  with  the  fulfillment  of  which  these  laws 
directly  interfere;  there  the  young  man  is  told  to  sell  all  that  he  has 
and  give  to  the  poor.  That  precept  it  is  impossible  to  obey  in  our 
day.  The  Corn  Laws  have  rendered  it  impossible.  It  must  be  altered 
and  in  future  it  will  stand:  'Sell  all  thou  hast,  and  divide  the  pro- 
ceeds between  the  richest  and  the  poorest,  between  the  pauper  and 
the  landlord.' " 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  ART   OF  PHRASING 

Introduction.  —  What  we  have  already  learned  about 
unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  has  had  to  do  mainly  with 
the  choice  and  arrangement  of  ideas.  In  this  chapter  we 
shall  learn  further  how  to  secure  these  artistic  qualities 
by  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  words. 

I.   Unity 

Meaning  of  Sentence  Unity.  —  A  sentence  is  said  to 
have  unity  when  it  expresses  one  and  only  one  main  idea. 
It  is  not  hard  for  the  speaker  to  secure  unity  when  he  uses 
the  simple  sentence  (a  sentence  with  one  main  clause). 
Neither  is  it  difficult  if  he  uses  the  complex  sentence  (a 
sentence  with  one  main  clause  and  one  or  more  dependent 
clauses) ;  for  the  main  idea  is  naturally  placed  in  the  main 
clause.  It  is  when  the  speaker  uses  the  compound  sen- 
tence (a  sentence  with  two  or  more  independent  clauses) 
that  he  is  likely  to  violate  the  principle  of  unity. 

Correct  Use  of  the  Compound  Sentence.  —  There  are 
three  sorts  of  ideas  which  may  be  expressed  correctly  in 
the  form  of  a  compound  sentence:  (i)  A  contrast  may  be 
so  expressed,  because  the  idea  of  difference  furnishes  the 
unifying  thought.  For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "You 
worked,  as  a  statesman,  for  the  enemy,  but  I  worked  for 
my  country,"  the  main  idea  is  that  the  two  statesmen 
worked  in  different  ways.     (2)  A  general  idea  may  be 


THE  ART  OF  PHRASING  iii 

illustrated  by  two  or  more  clauses  of  similar  construction. 
Grady,  for  instance,  said,  "Horses  that  had  charged 
Federal  guns  marched  before  the  plow;  fields  that  ran 
red  with  human  blood  in  April  were  green  with  harvest 
in  June."  The  swift  restoration  of  the  South  is  the 
one  general  idea  that  is  illustrated  by  each  of  these 
clauses.  (3)  Ideas  which  are  equal  and  very  closely  re- 
lated may  be  united  in  a  compound  sentence  without  mar- 
ring its  unity.  Thus,  "Webster  went  down  to  Faneuil 
Hall  to  protest,  and  four  thousand  of  his  fellow  W  higs 
went  out  to  meet  him."  The  two  acts  referred  to  in  this 
sentence  probably  occurred  at  the  same  time  and  were 
equally  necessary  to  the  situation  that  formed  the  basis 
of  the  story. 

Incorrect  Use  of  the  Compound  Sentence.  —  There  are 
two  ways  in  which  young  speakers  very  commonly  form 
compound  sentences  that  violate  the  principle  of  unity. 
In  the  first  place,  in  telling  a  story  they  are  Hable  to  join 
that  which  follows  in  time  to  that  which  precedes  by  and, 
and  then,  or  and  so.  An  event  which  follows,  another  in 
time  may  not  be  closely  enough  related  to  it  to  be  placed 
in  the  same  sentence  with  it. 

In  the  second  place,  students  often  form  into  a  com- 
pound sentence  ideas  which  are  related  but  which  are  not 
of  equal  value:  as,  "It  was  a  fine  day  and  we  went  for 
a  walk."  Since  the  fact  that  "we  went  for  a  walk"  is 
the  principal  information  which  the  speaker  desired  to 
give,  it  should  have  been  placed  in  the  main  clause  and 
the  idea  of  the  fine  day  in  a  dependent  clause.  The  result 
would  have  been  the  comi)lex  sentence,  "As  it  was  a  fine 
day,  we  went  for  a  walk." 


112  ORAL  ENGLISH 

IL    Coherence 

Connective  Words  or  Phrases.  —  We  have  already 
seen  that  a  speaker  may  secure  coherence  by  an  orderly 
arrangement  of  ideas.  He  may  also  make  his  speech  hang 
together  by  certain  tricks  of  language.  Almost  every 
sentence  should  contain  within  it  some  word  or  phrase 
which  makes  reference  to  a  preceding  idea.  Personal 
pronouns  {them,  it,  etc.),  adjectives  {such,  these,  this,  etc.), 
and  conjunctions  {while,  therefore,  and  others  hsted  in 
Ex.  Ill)  may  be  so  used  as  to  lead  the  mind  easily  from 
one  thought  to  the  next.  One  may  use  not  only  single 
words  but  also  phrases  to  indicate  the  relation  between 
ideas.  Lincoln  does  this  in  the  Gettysburg  Address 
when  he  says,  ^^ But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedi- 
cate," etc.  By  this  phrase,  we  are  reminded  of  the  nar- 
rower sense  in  which  he  treated  the  subject  of  dedication 
in  the  preceding  sentences. 

Parallel  Construction.  —  By  giving  to  similar  ideas  a 
similar  or  parallel  construction,  the  speaker  may  help  his 
audience  to  follow  more  easily  a  desired  line  of  thought. 
Ideas  are  given  a  similar  construction  when  the  parts  of  the 
sentence,  such  as  the  subject,  predicate  complement,  and 
modifiers,  are  all  in  the  same  relative  positions.     Chapter 

III,  Ex.  VI,  Selection  i  furnishes  an  excellent  example  of 
the  coherent  value  of  this  rhetorical  method,  which  was 
a  very  prominent  feature  of  Webster's  style  also. 

Several  illustrations  may  be  found  in  Chapter  III,  Ex. 

IV,  2,  and  Ex.  V,  2.  Let  us  study  one  of  them. 
Webster  says,  "If  the  prisoner's  guilt  has  been  shown 
and  proved  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt,  you  will  convict 
him.     If  such  reasonable  doubt  of  guilt  still  remains,  you 


THE  ART  OF   PHRASING  113 

will  acquit  him."  In  these  two  sentences  the  dependent 
clause  is  placed  first  and  the  independent  clause  varies 
in  only  one  word.  Let  us  change  the  order  of  ideas  in  the 
second  sentence,  and  note  the  result.  "If  the  prisoner's 
guilt  has  been  shown  and  proved  beyond  all  reasonable 
doubt,  you  will  convict  him.  He  should,  however,  be 
acquitted  by  you  if  reasonable  doubt  of  guilt  still  remains." 
We  see,  by  this  experiment,  how  much  Webster  has 
gained  in  force,  coherence,  and  rhythmic  quality  by  the 
use  of  parallel  construction. 

III.   Emphasis 

Directness.  —  Emphasis,  or  force,  may  be  gained  by 
directness:  (i)  A  direct  quotation  is  more  forcible  than 
an  indirect  quotation:  for  example,  "  'Fire!'  commanded 
Jackson,"  is  more  emphatic  than,  "He  commanded  them 
to  fire."  (2)  The  active,  or  direct  form  of  the  verb  is 
stronger  than  the  passive  form:  for  example,  "He  dis- 
tributed the  papers"  is  more  forceful  than  "The  papers 
were  distributed  by  him."  (3)  Conciseness  gives  strength; 
unnecessary  words  give  weakness.  For  instance,  "He  re- 
turned to  the  city  which  he  claimed  as  his  birthplace,"  is 
weak  as  compared  with,  "He  returned  to  his  native  city." 

Arrangement  of  Words.  —  As  the  important  parts  of 
a  speech  are  at  the  opening  and  at  the  close,  so  it  is  with 
a  sentence:  that  which  the  speaker  desires  to  emphasize 
should  be  placed  near  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the 
sentence.  Unimportant  expressions  such  as  "I  think,"  or 
"he  said,"  should  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence. 

Emphasis  or  force  can  be  gained  also  by  the  use  of 
climax,  that  is,  by  the  arrangement  of  a  series  of  words 
or  phrases  in  the  order  of  importance,  the  strongest  last. 


114  ORAL  ENGLISH 

This  was  another  favorite  device  of  Webster's.  Sev- 
eral examples  are  given  in  Chapter  III,  Ex.  IV,  2,  and 
Ex.  V,  2. 

Variety  in  Sentence  Form.  —  Just  as  a  voice  is  monoto- 
nous if  it  lacks  emphasis,  or  variety  in  pitch,  so  one's  style 
is  monotonous  if  the  sentences  are  all  built  on  the  same 
plan.  The  speaker,  then,  who  would  be  forceful,  or  em- 
phatic, should  study  the  different  kinds  of  sentence  forms, 
together  with  their  adaptability  to  certain  purposes,  and 
should  seek  to  use  as  great  a  variety  as  possible. 

(i)  Sentences  may  be  grouped  according  to  grammatical 
structure.  According  to  this  classification  they  are  either 
declarative,  interrogative,  exclamatory,  or  imperative. 
The  declarative  form  is  generally  used  by  young  speakers 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  other  forms,  with  a  resulting 
monotony  of  style.  The  interrogative  form  is  especially 
useful  to  the  speaker.  He  may  sometimes  use  it  to  intro- 
duce a  thought.  Macaulay  does  this  when  he  asks,  "And 
what  are  the  virtues  ascribed  to  Charles?"  He  then 
devotes  a  paragraph  to  answering  his  own  question. 
(Reading  Lesson  VI,  i,  H  2,  page  108.)  Again,  a  speaker 
may  bring  a  thought  to  an  appropriate  conclusion  by 
the  question  form.  Emerson  gains  emphasis  in  this  way 
when,  after  amphfying  the  thought  that  a  man  should 
develop  his  own  powers  and  not  try  to  imitate  those  of 
another,  he  asks,  "Is  it  (the  thought)  not  an  iron  string 
to  which  vibrates  every  heart?  "  (Chapter  III,  Ex.  Ill,  2.) 
When  a  speaker  attempts  this  latter  use  of  the  interroga- 
tive sentence,  however,  he  must  be  sure  that  he  has  made 
his  point  so  clear  that  his  hearers  can  answer  the  question 
in  only  one  way  —  the  way  in  which  he  wishes  them  to 
answer  it.     The  exclamatory  sentence  finds  its  proper  place 


THE  ART  OF  PHRASING  115 

in  emotional  oratory,  but  is  seldom  used  in  ordinary 
speechmaking.  IMacaulay  uses  it  to  express  sarcasm. 
(Reading  Lesson  VI,  i,  ^  2,  page  108.)  The  imperative 
sentence  form  increases  the  emphasis  because  it  enables 
the  speaker  to  address  his  hearers  directly.  It  may  be 
used  effectively  in  exhortation  at  the  close  of  a  speech. 
(Reading  Lesson  VI,  2,  page  108.) 

(2)  Sentences  may  be  classified  according  to  length. 
Short  sentences  give  clearness  and  simplicity  of  style. 
With  this  purpose  in  view,  they  can  be  used  as  topic 
sentences  and  as  definitions.  They  also  give  strength,  or 
vigor  of  style.  With  this  purpose  in  view,  they  may  be 
used  in  the  expression  of  strong  feeling  or  rapid  action. 
A  speaker  may  sometimes  gain  emphasis  by  using  a  short 
sentence  as  the  last  expression  in  the  development  of  a 
thought.  An  excellent  illustration  of  the  effectiveness  of 
a  short  closing  sentence  is  to  be  found  in  Reading  Lesson 
V,  Selection  7. 

Long  sentences  are  useful  as  a  means  of  amplifying  a 
thought.  By  a  long  sentence,  a  speaker  may  give  the 
details  which  explain  a  short,  general  statement.  (Read- 
ing Lesson  V,  Selection  6.)  He  may  also  modify  a  short, 
extreme  statement.  Lincoln,  for  instance,  makes  the 
rather  startling  claim,  "A  house  divided  against  itself 
cannot  stand."  Then,  by  the  use  of  severa,!  long  sen- 
tences, he  proceeds  to  show  exactly  what  he  means  by 
this  statement.  (Reading  Lesson  IV,  2.)  Again,  the 
exclusive  use  of  short  sentences  would  result  in  abruptness, 
whereas  an  occasional  long  sentence  adds  a  rhythmic 
quality  which  is  necessary  to  a  pleasing  style. 

(3)  Sentences  may  be  classified  according  to  the  way 
in  whi(  h  the  ideas  are  arranged.     In  a  loose  sentence,  the 


ii6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

main  idea  is  stated  first,  followed  by  the  lesser,  or  modify- 
ing ideas.  One  may  say  that  the  weight,  in  a  loose  sen- 
tence, is  at  the  beginning.  This  kind  of  sentence  is  used 
frequently  in  the  easy,  informal  style  of  address.  The 
only  danger  is  that  one  may  continue  to  add  ideas  until 
the  sentence  becomes  rambling. 

In  the  periodic  sentence,  the  main  idea  is  reserved  until 
the  last  and  is  preceded  by  the  lesser,  or  modifying  ideas. 
In  reading  a  truly  periodic  sentence,  one  is  unable  to  grasp 
the  main  idea  until  he  has  reached  the  period.  One  may 
say  that  the  weight  of  the  sentence  is  at  the  end.  This 
kind  of  sentence  is  found  more  frequently  in  the  formal, 
dignified  style  of  address.  Since  the  tendency  to  use  loose 
sentences  is  so  strong,  it  will  be  well  for  the  student 
definitely  to  practice  the  periodic  form. 

In  a  balanced  sentence,  there  are  two  ideas  of  equal 
importance.  One  may  say  that  the  weight  is  equal  at 
both  ends.  A  balanced  sentence  is  frequently  used  to 
express  a  contrast.  This  kind  of  sentence  is  pleasing 
because  of  its  symmetry. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  that 
unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  are  gained  not  only  by 
the  choice  and  arrangement  of  ideas,  but  also  by  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

The  Art  of  Phrasing 

Introduction  —  Advance  summary. 
Body. 

1.   Unity. 

A.   Meaning  of  sentence  unity. 

I.   Use  of  simple,  complex,  and  compound  sentences. 


THE  ART  OF  PHR.\SIXG  117 

I.       .6.    Correct  use  of  the  compound  sentence. 

1.  Contrast. 

2.  General  idea,  illustrated. 

3.  Ideas  which  are  equal  and  closely  related. 
C.    Incorrect  use  of  the  compound  sentence. 

1.  Events  which  follow  in  time. 

2.  Ideas  which  are  equal  but  not  closely  related. 
II.    Coherence. 

A.  Connective  words  or  phrases. 

1 .  Words. 

2.  Phrases. 

B.  Parallel  construction. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  Example. 

3.  Example  changed. 
III.   Emphasis. 

A.  Directness. 

I     The  direct  quotation. 

2.  Active  verbs. 

3.  Conciseness. 

B.  .Arrangement  of  words. 

1.  Important  positions  in  a  sentence. 

2.  Climax. 

C.  \'ariety  in  sentence  form.  —  Voice. 

1.  Grammatical  structure. 

2.  Length. 

(a)  Short. 
{b)  Long. 

3.  Arrangement  of  ideas. 

((i)  Loose. 
(Z»)  Periodic, 
(c)  Balanced. 

Conclusion. 

Exercise  L  —  i.  Read  the  text  as  far  as  Division  II  and  be  able 
to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

2.  Select  and  check  in  your  book  the  compound  sentences  in 
Reading  Lesson  \'. 


ii8  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Exercise  II.  —  Be  able  in  class  to  repeat  one  of  the  narrative 
speeches  which  you  prepared  in  connection  with  Chapter  IX.  Re- 
vise the  outhne  if  necessary.  Give  special  attention  to  sentence 
unity.  Challenge  every  compound  sentence;  i.e.  watch  the  ands. 
As  the  speeches  are  given,  the  class  should  make  note  of  any  com- 
pound sentences  which  should  not  have  been  so. 

Exercise  III.  —  i.  Read  Division  II  and  be  able  to  recite  from 
the  topical  outline. 

2.  Review  the  Gettysburg  Address  (page  38)  and  check  all 
^vords  and  phrases  which  refer  to  a  previous  idea  or  which  express 
a  relation  between  ideas. 

3.  The  following  connectives  may  be  classified  according  to  the 
relation  that  each  expresses  between  the  two  ideas  which  it  connects. 
The  relations  are:  time,  result,  possibility,  comparison,  opposition, 
concession,  addition,  illustration,  reason,  summary,  etc.  Use  each 
correctly  in  a  sentence  or  sentences,  and  place  in  parentheses  the 
name  of  the  relation  which  is  expressed;  e.g.: 

He  is  not  able  to  do  it;  at  any  rate  he  will  find  it  very  difficult. 
(Concession.) 

The  class  may  be  divided  into  three  sections,  each  section  pre- 
paring the  sentences  for  one  list. 

I  II  III 

even  if above  all in  reality 

in  conclusion ....  also to  be  sure 

secondly yet as  well  as 

while accordingly in  spite  of 

therefore after as  a  matter  of  fact 

for  instance before meanwhile 

but as  a  result because 

at  least on  the  contrary of  course 

in  general besides for  that  matter 

moreover indeed rather 

nevertheless at  the  same  time still 

for  example again furthermore 

hence on  the  other  hand.  .  .    consequently 

when then however 

as  soon  as somewhat  later either.  .  .or 

thus it  follows  that neither.  .  .nor 

although unless for 


THE  ART  OF  PHRASING  119 

Exercise  IV.  —  Be  able  to  repeat  one  of  the  expository  or  argu- 
mentative speeches  which  you  have  already  prepared.  Revise  it  with 
special  attention  to  coherence.  Seek  to  gain  coherence  by  the  use 
of  parallel  constructions  and  connective  words.  As  the  speeches  are 
given,  the  class  should  make  note  of  all  connective  words  and  ex- 
pressions. 

Exercise  V.  —  i .  Complete  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite 
from  the  topical  outhne. 

2.  Change  to  declarative  sentences  all  sentences  quoted  or  referred 
to  under  the  topic  "Variety  in  Sentence  Form  (i)."  Notice  the 
loss  in  force. 

3.  Find  a  periodic  sentence  in  Reading  Lesson  VI,  i  (page  108), 
and  change  it  to  a  loose  sentence. 

4.  Check  all  balanced  sentences  in  Reading  Lesson  VI,  i  and  3. 

Exercise  VI.  —  Be  able  to  repeat  one  of  the  expository  or  argu- 
mentative speeches  which  you  have  already  prepared.  Revise  it 
with  particular  attention  to  variety  of  sentence  form.  Try  to  have 
at  least  one  interrogative  or  imperative  sentence.  Experiment  with 
balanced  and  periodic  sentences  and  thus  try  to  increase  the  effective- 
ness of  your  speech. 

Exercise  VII.  —  Written  Review.  Be  able  to  write  in  class  on 
any  of  the  following  topics: 

1.  How  to  Get  Unity  in  the  Choice  of  a  Subject. 

2.  How  to  Get  Unity  in  the  Development  of  a  Subject. 

3.  How  to  Plan  for  Coherence. 

4.  How  to  Plan  for  Emphasis. 

5.  The  Best  Method  of  Making  a  Plan  for  a  Speech. 

6.  The  DifTcrencc  between  the  Plan  for  an  .'\rgumcnt  and  the 
Plan  for  an  Exposition. 

7.  Description  of  the  Extempore  Method. 

8.  Value  of  the  Extempore  Method. 

g.   The  Correct  Use  of  the  Compound  Sentence. 
10.    \'aricty  of  Sentence  Forms  as  a  Means  of  Force. 


PART   III  — ARGUMENT  AND 
PERSUASION 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE   GAME   OF  DEBATE 

Introduction.  —  Now  that  we  have  learned  how  to 
deliver  a  speech  and  have  studied  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  composition,  we  shall  be  able  to  apply  our  knowl- 
edge and  skill  to  argument  and  persuasion,  two  forms  of 
speech  which  are  more  difficult  in  their  character. 

These  two  processes,  if  we  may  call  them  such,  are  very 
closely  related.  Persuasion  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of 
moving  men  to  action.  In  most  instances  the  persuasive 
speaker  must  first  convince  men  that  a  certain  course  of 
action  is  right  and  then  lead  them  to  feel  disposed  to  act 
on  their  convictions.  There  is  occasionally  a  very  success- 
ful persuasive  speech  which  appeals  strongly  to  the  feelings 
and  very  little  to  the  reason;  that  is,  it  contains  little 
argument.  Such  might  be  the  speech  of  a  clergyman  in 
urging  his  congregation  to  go  to  the  polls  and  vote  for 
good  government;  for  he  would  know  that  his  hearers 
were  already  convinced  as  to  what  was  right  and  needed 
only  to  be  aroused  to  action.  If,  however,  a  man  wishes 
to  secure  contributions  to  a  cause,  he  must  first  convince 
his  hearers  that  the  cause  is  a  worthy  one.  If  he  does  not 
support  his  appeal  to  the  feelings  by  sound  reasoning, 
the  impulse  to  act  is  likely  to  be  of  short  duration.  We 
see,  then,  that  argument  is  very  frequently  the  foundation 
of  persuasion. 


THE  GAME  OF  DEBATE  121 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  study  (i)  the  relation  of  debate 
to  argument,  (2)  the  relation  of  debate  to  life,  and  (3)  the 
value  of  debate  as  an  exercise  in  public  speaking. 

I.   Relation  of  Debate  to  Argument     • 

Nature  of  Debate.  —  Debate  may  be  defined  as  a  game 
in  which  two  or  more  people  discuss,  according  to  certain 
rules,  some  question  in  real  life  on  which  there  are  differ- 
ences of  opinion.  The  question  may  be  a  simple  one, 
such  as,  ''Shall  our  senior  class  buy  a  two-dollar  or  a  three- 
dollar  pin?"  Or  it  may  be  more  complex,  as,  "Should  our 
judges  be  appointed  by  the  governor  or  elected  by  the 
people?"  Honest  differences  of  opinion  occur  in  real 
life,  either  because  Mr.  A.  recognizes  one  series  of  facts 
and  Mr.  B.  recognizes  another  series  of  facts,  or  because, 
while  both  recognize  the  same  series  of  facts,  each  draws 
a  different  conclusion  therefrom.  The  winner  of  the 
game  is  the  one  who  is  best  able  to  search  out  the  facts 
supporting  the  opinion  which  he  has  been  appointed  to 
uphold  and  to  use  those  facts  in  such  a  way  as  to  convince 
his  audience  of  their  value. 

Argumentative  Practice.  —  The  game  of  debate  has 
been  devised  to  give  young  people  an  opportunity  to  put 
into  practice  their  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  argument. 
It  is  true  that  one  can  learn  to  argue  merely  by  a  study  of 
the  rules  and  by  the  preparation  of  individual  arguments, 
but  he  will  develop  his  powers  more  rapidly  if  he  will 
engage  in  the  game  of  debate.  Even  though  a  student 
does  not  have  the  natural  al)ility  to  become  a  skilled  de- 
bater, he  should  study  and  understand  the  game.  One 
who  does  not  understand  the  game  of  football  sees  only  a 
tumbling  mass  of  boys,  while  one  who  does  understand  it 


122  ORAL  ENGLISH 

watches  every  move  with  keen  interest.  In  the  same  way, 
one  who  does  not  understand  the  game  of  debate  looks 
upon  it  as  a  bore,  while  one  who  does  understand  it  gets 
from  it  both  pleasure  and  profit.  Because  of  the  fact  that 
the  best  way  to  learn  to  argue  is  to  study  the  game  of 
debate,  all  of  the  instruction  in  argument  given  in  this  text 
has  been  addressed  to  the  debater. 

II.   Relation  of  Debate  to  Life 

Personal  Problems.  —  The  study  of  argumentation 
and  the  game  of  debate  have  a  very  close  relation  to  life. 
We  are  debating  with  ourselves  every  day.  We  must 
decide,  for  instance,  whether  to  go  to  the  party  or  to  stay 
at  home  and  prepare  for  an  examination.  Again,  the 
problem  arises,  "Shall  I  take  a  commercial  course  and  be 
a  business  man  or  shall  I  study  medicine?"  In  each 
case,  we  find  that  the  question  has  two  sides.  In  the 
solution  of  even  these  practical  problems  of  life,  an  under- 
standing of  the  rules  that  govern  argument  will  prevent 
us  from  being  led  into  error,  either  by  our  own  false 
reasoning  or  by  that  of  others. 

Citizenship.  —  The  practice  of  debate  will  tend  to  make 
one  a  valuable  citizen  in  a  democratic  community.  In 
the  first  place,  it  will  furnish  him  with  a  wide  range  of 
information  on  problems  which  he  will  be  required  to  dis- 
cuss in  later  life.  A  student  who  is  interested  in  debating 
throughout  his  high  school  course  may,  by  means  of  de- 
bates prepared  by  himself  or  of  those  presented  by  his 
classmates,  arrive  at  a  more  or  less  intelligent  conclusion 
upon  all  the  problems  that  come  before  the  public  mind. 

In  the  second  place,  debate  will  assist  in  the  formation 
of  a  judicial  habit  of  mind,  or  the  habit  of  weighing  every 


THE   GAME  OF  DEBATE  123 

fact  before  drawing  a  conclusion.  Among  those  who  have 
debated  under  efficient  guidance,  one  will  seldom  find  the 
narrow-minded,  prejudiced,  or  partisan.  Neither  will 
he  find  those  who  are  easily  influenced  by  false  political 
leaders. 

It  is  sometimes  urged  against  debating  that  it  tends 
to  make  a  speaker  insincere,  in  that  he  may  be  required  to 
speak  against  his  convictions.  The  fact  is  that  the  con- 
victions which  a  young  person  may  have  on  a  debatable 
question  are  very  likely  to  be  mere  prejudices  which  will 
vanish  when  the  light  of  knowledge  is  turned  on.  We 
say  "on  a  debatable  question"  because  a  question  in 
which  all  the  right  is  on  one  side  and  all  the  wrong  is  on 
the  other  is  not  debatable.  We  could  not,  for  example, 
debate  the  proposition,  "Resolved,  That  Mr.  A.  should 
throw  his  garbage  into  his  neighbor's  yard."  The  major- 
ity of  debatable  questions  deal  with  reforms  or  policies. 
These  have  their  advantages  and  disadvantages  as  com- 
pared with  other  reforms  and  policies;  so  that  a  thorough 
and  conscientious  debater  may  change  his  opinion  several 
times  before  he  has  exhausted  the  study  of  his  subject. 
Sometimes  one  newly  discovered  fact  will  outweigh  all 
the  plausible  arguments  on  the  opposing  side.  It  is  only 
when  we  know  and  have  weighed  all  the  facts  on  both  sides 
that  we  may  be  said  to  have  convictions  which  are  worthy 
of  the  name.  As  Mr.  G.  J.  Holyoake  says,  "Controversy 
is  the  pathway  to  truth  and  the  final  test  of  it." 

The  practice  of  debate  will  also  helj)  a  student  to  become 
a  leader  among  his  fellows,  because  it  not  only  increases 
his  skill  as  a  speaker,  but  also  gives  him  the  necessary 
foundation  for  persuasiveness.  This  claim  is  supported 
by  the  statement  <jf   the  dean   of  a  western  law  school. 


124  ORAL  ENGLISH 

He  says  of  its  graduates,  "Those  who  were  athletes  en- 
joyed a  brief  period  of  glory  while  in  college,  but  it  is  the 
debaters  who  are  now  helping  to  make  the  history  of 
the  community,  state,  and  nation." 

III.    Debate    as    an    Exercise    in    Public    Speaking 

Self-consciousness.  —  As  a  valuable  exercise  in  public 
speaking,  debating  is  unsurpassed.  It  helps  to  counteract 
a  tendency  to  self-consciousness,  for  the  debater's  interest 
in  the  contest  causes  him  to  forget  himself. 

Thoroughness.  —  No  other  exercise  demands  so  much 
thoroughness  of  preparation;  this  is  especially  true  of 
the  pubHc  contest.  Prof.  W.  T.  Foster  says  in  his  Argu- 
mentation and  Debating,  "Often  the  hard  work  for  a  given 
debate  provides  the  student's  first  standard  for  sounding 
the  shallowness  of  his  knowledge  on  other  subjects." 
Students  have  sometimes  been  able  to  use  the  thorough 
work  done  on  a  high-school  interscholastic  debate  as  the 
basis  for  a  prize  essay  or  discussion  at  college. 

Mental  Training.  —  There  can  be  no  better  training 
for  the  mind.  The  practice  of  debate,  more  than  any 
other  form  of  speech-making,  compels  a  wise  selection  of 
material.  If  a  speaker  has  no  opponent,  he  may  occupy 
ten  minutes  with  almost  any  matter  that  refers  to  the  sub- 
ject; but  if  he  debates,  he  must  choose  those  arguments 
which  will  fill  his  time  most  profitably. 

Furthermore,  it  sharpens  the  wits.  The  debater  must 
not  only  think,  but  he  must  think  quickly.  This  whole 
matter  is  admirably  summed  up  by  Edmund  Burke,  the 
great  parliamentary  debater,  when  he  says,  "He  that 
wrestles  with  us  strengthens  our  nerves  and  sharpens  our 
skill.     Our  antagonist  is  our  helper.     This  amiable  con- 


THE   GAME  OF  DEBATE  125 

flict  with  difficulty  obliges  us  to  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  our  subject  and  compels  us  to  consider  it  in  all  its 
relations.     It  will  not  suffer  us  to  be  superficial." 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
that  the  game  of  debate  has  been  devised  to  enable  stu- 
dents to  apply  their  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  argument; 
(2)  that  the  study  of  argumentation  and  debate  has  a 
very  close  relation  to  life;  and  (3)  that  as  a  valuable  exer- 
cise in  public  speaking,  debating  is  unsurpassed. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

The  Game  of  Debate 
Introduction. 

I.   Relation  between  Parts  I,  II,  and  III  of  the  text. 
II.    Relation  of  argument  to  persuasion. 
III.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   Relation  of  debate  to  argument. 

A.  Nature  of  debate. 

1.  Definition  illustrated. 

2.  Causes  of  different  opinions. 

3.  Qualifications  of  the  winner. 

B.  Argumentative  practice. 

1.  Purpose  of  debate. 

2.  Value  as  compared  with  the  individual  speech. 

3.  \'alue  of  understanding  the  game. 
II.    Relation  of  debate  to  life. 

A.  Personal  problems. 

1.  Instances. 

2.  Prevention  of  error. 

B.  Citizenship. 

1.  Information. 

2.  Judicial  habit  of  mind. 

(o)   Definition. 
{b)    Insincerity. 


126  ORAL  ENGLISH 

n.        B.       2.        (b)       (i)   An  undebatable  question. 

(2)  Character  of  debatable  questions. 

(3)  Meaning  of   "convictions"  —  Hol- 

yoake. 
3.   Leadership. 

(a)   Two  reasons. 

(h)    Statement  by  the  dean  of  a  law  school. 
III.   Debate  as  an  exercise  in  public  speaking. 

A .  Self-consciousness. 

B.  Thoroughness. 

1.  Statement  by  W.  T.  Foster. 

2.  Use  in  college. 

C.  Mental  training. 

1.  Selection  of  material. 

2.  Alertness. 

3.  Statement  of  Burke. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE    QUESTION 

Introduction.  —  The  subject  for  discussion  is  usually 
called  "the  question."  This  is  allowable  for  the  reason 
that  there  is  really  a  question  underlying  every  debate. 
For  example,  we  may  debate  the  proposition,  "Resolved, 

That High  School  should  adopt  a  system  of  student 

government."  Involved  in  this  proposition  is  the  ques- 
tion, "Should High  School  adopt  a  system  of  student 

government?"  To  this,  the  affirmative  side  answers 
"Yes"  and  the  negative  answers  "No." 

The  subject  for  discussion  is  always  phrased,  however, 
in  the  form  of  a  complete  statement.  In  the  first  place, 
for  the  purposes  of  formal  debating,  the  statement  is  more 
convenient  than  the  question  form.  The  first,  or  affirma- 
tive speaker,  sui)ports  or  affirms  the  proposition ;  the  second, 
or  negative  speaker,  denies  it;  and  the  remaining  speakers 
follow  alternately,  according  as  they  affirm  or  deny. 
In  the  second  place,  the  statement  form  can  be  made 
more  clear  and  expHcit  than  a  topic.  It  would  be  impos- 
sible to  debate  successfully  the  topic,  "Student  Govern- 
ment"; for  it  does  not  state  whether  the  dispute  con- 
cerns college,  high-school,  or  grammar-school  students, 
or  whether  it  concerns  all  schools  or  one  particular  school. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i)  that  in  phrasing  a 
question  for  debate,  one  should  seek  to  throw  the  burden 
of   proof   upon    the   affirmative,   avoiding,    if  possible,    a 


128  ORAL  ENGLISH 

negative  statement;  and  (2)  that  he  should  aim  to  make 
the  question  evenly  balanced;  that  is,  he  should  try  to 
give  to  each  side  an  equal  chance. 

I  I.   Burden  of  Proof 

Supported  by  Affirmative.  —  The  question  should  be 
so  worded  as  to  place  the  burden  of  proof  upon  the  affirm- 
ative. In  questions  of  present-day  interest,  this  can  be 
done  by  forcing  the  affirmative  to  advocate  a  change  or, 
in  general,  to  uphold  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  unpopular 
side.  This  arrangement  furnishes  an  incentive  to  earnest 
work  on  the  part  of  the  affirmative,  since  it  is  assumed  that 
the  general  public  is  in  favor  of  things  as  they  exist,  else 
they  would  already  have  been  changed.  The  affirmative 
has  the  work  of  attacking  the  old  and  of  convincing  the 
pubhc  of  the  value  of  the  new.  To  make  a  speech  in 
defense  of  present  conditions  before  they  have  been 
attacked  would  be  a  very  tame  affair.  The  first  affirma- 
tive would  find  it  very  difficult,  for  example,  to  introduce 
in  an  interesting  way  the  proposition,  '^Resolved,  That  we 
should  make  no  change  in  our  method  of  school  govern- 
ment." 

Shifting  the  Burden.  —  If  the  first  affirmative  has  done 
his  work  well,  he  is  said  to  have  shifted  the  burden  of 
proof  to  the  negative;  that  is,  he  has  convinced  the  public 
that  a  change  is  necessary.  The  negative  then  has  the 
exhilarating  task  of  trying  to  shift  the  burden  back  again. 
He  can  do  this  in  one  of  two  ways :  he  may  attack  the  new 
plan  and  defend  present  conditions,  or,  as  is  more  com- 
monly the  case,  he  may  admit  the  evil  of  present  conditions 
and  present  what  he  considers  a  better  remedy.  If  each 
speaker  does  his  duty,  the  burden  of  proof  continues  to 


THE  QUESTION  129 

be  shifted  alternately  from  one  side  to  the  other.  The 
winners  of  the  debate,  from  the  standpoint  of  argument, 
are  those  who,  in  the  minds  of  the  judges,  have  finally 
shifted  the  burden  to  the  other  side.  Since  the  burden  of 
proof  rests  in  the  beginning  upon  the  affirmative,  the  main 
speeches  are  so  arranged  as  to  give  the  affirmative  the 
first  chance  to  shift  the  burden  to  the  negative.  For 
the  same  reason,  the  affirmative  is  given  an  opportunity 
to  close  the  debate.  This  is  accomplished  by  reversing 
the  order  in  which  the  speakers  appear  for  refutation; 
that  is,  the  refutation  speeches  are  so  arranged  that 
negative  speakers  lead  and  affirmative  speakers  follow. 

Objection  to  Negative  Statement.  —  In  phrasing  a 
question  so  that  the  burden  of  proof  will  fall  upon  the 
affirmative,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  avoid  a  negative 
statement.  Let  us  consider  the  question,  "Resolved,  That 
the  Garrison  bill  providing  for  a  larger  army  should  not 
be  supported."  This  statement  has  its  merit  and  its 
demerit.  It  is  good  in  that  it  places  the  burden  of  proof 
upon  the  affirmative,  for  it  was  phrased  at  a  time  when 
public  opinion  was  strongly  in  favor  of  increased  prepared- 
ness. In  other  words,  it  forced  the  affirmative  to  advocate 
a  peace  poHcy  when  there  seemed  to  be  particular  need 
of  defense.  The  negative  phrasing  of  the  question,  how- 
ever, is  likely  to  be  a  source  of  confusion  to  both  speakers 
and  audience.  It  is  necessary  constantly  to  reverse  one's 
mental  machinery;  for  the  affirmative  side  takes  a  nega- 
tive attitude  toward  the  topic  of  discussion,  while  the 
negative  side  takes  a  positive  attitude.  Possibly  a  better 
statement  of  the  question  would  be,  "Resolved,  That 
the  Oarrison  bill  providing  for  a  larger  army  should  be 
condemned."     It  must  be  admitted  that,  ev^n  with  this 


I30  ORAL  ENGLISH 

statement  of  the  question,  the  negative  idea  is  present,  — 
this  is  made  necessary  by  the  situation,  —  but  the  affirm- 
ative phrasing  does  in  a  measure  lessen  the  difficulty. 

II.    Balance 

A  good  question  for  debate  is  evenly  balanced;  that  is, 
it  is  so  worded  that  the  burden  of  proof  does  not  rest  too 
heavily  upon  the  affirmative.  The  change  that  is  advo- 
cated should  not  be  too  extreme  or  radical.  Let  us  take 
as  an  example  the  question  of  our  jury  system.  It  is 
freely  admitted  that  there  are  many  evils  in  our  jury 
system.  For  this  reason  the  following  question  has 
frequently  been  debated :  "Resolved,  That  the  jury  system 
should  be  abolished."  This  radical  statement  of  the  prob- 
lem is,  however,  unfair  to  the  affirmative.  The  change  is 
too  sweeping.  It  would  do  violence  to  our  most  cherished 
guarantee  of  freedom.  A  better  debate  would  result  from 
the  consideration  of  some  reform  within  the  jury  system: 
as,  "Resolved,  That  nine  out  of  twelve  men  should  be 
able  to  render  a  verdict  in  all  criminal  cases."  This 
proposition,  although  it  provides  for  a  much  less  radical 
change,  places  a  sufficiently  heavy  burden  on  the  affirma- 
tive, for  we  are  all  inclined  to  feel  that  a  man  should  not 
suffer  the  extreme,  or  death,  penalty  unless  all  who  hear 
the  evidence  concur  in  the  verdict.  No  debatable  ques- 
tion is  absolutely  balanced.  We  can  only  seek  to  approxi- 
mate a  true  balance. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  that,  in 
phrasing  a  question  for  debate,  we  should  seek  (i)  to 
place  the  burden  of  proof  upon  the  affirmative  and  (2) 
to  give  to  each  side,  as  nearly  as  possible,  an  equal  oppor- 
tunity. 


THE  QUESTION  131 

TOPICAL    OUTLINE 

The  Question 
Introduction. 

I.    Reason  for  calling  the  subject  a  question. 
II.   Why  phrased  as  a  statement. 

A.  As  compared  with  a  question. 

B.  As  compared  \nih  a  topic. 
III.   Advance  summary. 

Body. 

I.   Burden  of  proof. 

A.  Supported  by  affirmative. 

1.  How  accomplished. 

2.  Value. 

B.  Shifting  the  burden. 

1.  Two  methods  of  the  negative. 

2.  Winners. 

3.  Order  of  speeches. 

C.  Objection  to  negative  statement. 

1.  Example. 

((7)    Its  merit  and  demerit. 

2.  Partial  remedy. 
II.   Balance. 

A.  Example  of  an  extreme  statement. 

B.  Example  of  a  less  extreme  statement. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

HOW  TO   USE  A   LIBRARY 

Introduction.  —  If  one  is  asked  to  make  a  speech  of 
greater  length  than  three  or  four  minutes,  whether  it  be 
a  debate  or  some  other  form  of  pubhc  address,  it  will 
probably  be  necessary  for  him  to  search  for  material  out- 
side of  his  own  mind.  It  is  quite  common  on  such  occa- 
sions for  young  students  to  seek  help  from  their  older 
friends.  This  is  profitable  and  right,  provided  that  the 
student  has  first  done  some  extensive  reading  on  the  sub- 
ject. Pubhc  spirited  men  usually  count  it  a  pleasure  to 
assist  a  bright,  energetic  student  if  he  knows  exactly  on 
what  phases  of  the  subject  the  student  desires  information. 
The  latter  should  not,  however,  pester  his  elders  for 
"points"  until  after  he  has  made  use  of  the  available 
written  material. 

The  most  successful  speakers  give  much  time  to  re- 
search work.  The  following  quotation  from  Alexander 
Hamilton  shows  how  much  drudgery  and  patient  effort 
lie  back  of  the  pubhc  utterances  of  great  men:  "Men 
give  me  credit  for  some  genius.  All  the  genius  I  have  Hes 
in  this:  when  I  have  a  subject  in  hand,  I  study  it  pro- 
foundly. Day  and  night  it  is  before  me.  I  explore  it  in 
all  its  bearings.  My  mind  becomes  pervaded  with  it. 
Then  the  effort  which  I  make  is  what  the  people  are  pleased 
to  call  the  fruit  of  genius.  It  is  the  fruit  of  labor  and 
thought."     The   material    to   be    studied   is   often   very 


HOW  TO   USE  A  LIBRARY  133 

extensive,  especially  upon  debatable  questions.  There 
are  subjects  discussed  on  high-school  platforms,  the 
literature  of  which  might  well  occupy  a  student  for  an 
entire  year.  Because  of  this,  it  is  usually  best  to  divide 
one's  time  into  two  parts,  giving  the  first  half  to  research 
work  and  the  second  half  to  the  arrangement  and  phrasing 
of  one's  ideas. 

Since  the  time  is  always  Hmited  and  since  the  material 
is  often,  seemingly,  without  limit,  the  speaker  must  learn 
those  methods  of  research  which  will  secure  the  best 
results  with  the  greatest  economy  of  effort.  We  shall 
learn,  therefore,  in  this  chapter:  (i)  how  to  find  material 
in  a  library,  (2)  how  to  select  that  which  is  most  useful, 
and  (3)  how  to  take  notes  in  the  best  way. 

I.   How  TO  Find  References 

References  are  those  books,  magazines,  or  pamphlets 
which  deal  with  the  subject  to  be  investigated. 

General  Idea.  —  The  speaker  should  try  first  to  get 
a  general  idea  of  his  subject.  This  is  quite  as  necessary 
as  it  is  for  the  artist  to  sketch  in  the  general  outline  of  his 
picture  before  he  fills  in  the  details.  In  some  instances 
one  may  be  able  to  find  this  general  idea  in  his  own  mind, 
Webster,  when  asked  how  he  prepared  himself  on  a  sub- 
ject, said,  "I  first  examine  my  own  mind  searchingly,  to 
find  out  what  I  already  know  about  the  subject,  and  then 
I  read  to  learn  what  I  don't  know  about  it." 

In  other  cases  the  speaker  may  consult  general  reference 
works  which  handle  the  whole  subject  in  a  brief  way.  If 
the  subject  is  historical,  literary,  or  scientific,  lie  may 
consult  the  encyclopedia  (ir  textbooks.  If  the  subject  is 
debatable,  he  may  use,  in  addition,  books  of  briefs.     (See 


134  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Appendix  XII,  No.  VII,  General  References  on  Debatable 
Subjects.) 

The  debater  should  be  warned  against  using  "brief 
books"  in  any  other  way  than  to  get  a  general  view  of 
the  subject.  He  should  not  copy  and  use  the  arrange- 
ment of  ideas;  for,  in  the  first  place,  the  arrangement  is 
seldom  ideal  and,  in  the  second  place,  an  original  plan 
helps  to  give  individuality  and  force  to  a  speech.  Again, 
the  student  should  never  use  a  book  of  briefs  as  authority 
for  a  statement. 

Special  References.  —  There  are  several  kinds  of  ref- 
erences which  give  the  detailed  facts  bearing  on  a  subject 
and  which  we  may  call  special  references. 

(i)  Magazine  Articles.  —  These  can  be  found  by  con- 
sulting the  Reader's  Guide,  which  is  a  continuation  of 
Poole's  Index  from  the  year  1900.  The  references  for  each 
month  are  issued  in  pamphlet  form.  At  the  end  of  the 
quarter,  the  references  for  the  year  up  to  that  time  are 
issued  in  pamphlet  form.  At  the  end  of  each  year  and 
again  at  the  end  of  every  five  years  they  are  issued  in 
bound  form. 

The  student  should  look  up  magazine  references  in 
some  regular  order.  He  will  then  know  whether  or  not 
he  has  found  all  of  the  best  articles.  It  is  usually  well 
to  begin  with  the  recent  ones  and  work  backward,  for  the 
latest  articles  give  more  up-to-date  and  therefore  more 
valuable  information.  The  speaker  should  not  be  de- 
terred from  this  course  by  the  fact  that  it  is  often  difficult 
to  secure  late  copies.  New  magazines  are  usually  sent  to 
the  bindery  in  January  and  in  July,  and  sometimes  are 
not  returned  for  two  or  three  months.  If  one  is  looking 
for  material  about  the  fife  and  works  of  a  great  character, 


HOW  TO  USE  A  LIBRARY  135 

it  is  well  to  find  the  date  of  his  death  and  to  look  for 
magazine  references  in  the  Reader'' s  Guide  for  that  year. 

The  thoroughness  with  which  the  student  can  search 
for  and  copy  references  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  time  which  is  allotted  to  the  work.  It  is 
always  well  to  look  for  references  under  several  different 
topics  connected  with  the  subject:  for  example,  material 
on  the  "Recall  of  Judges"  may  be  found  under  Judiciary, 
Courts,  Laws,  Recall  of  Decisions,  etc.  If  one  has  but  a 
short  time  for  preparation,  he  should  copy  only  those  refer- 
ences whose  titles  indicate  that  they  bear  directly  on  the 
subject.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  one  is  gathering  material 
for  a  pubhc  debate  and  has  from  four  to  six  weeks  to 
study  the  subject,  he  should  copy  all  references.  He  may 
sometimes  find,  in  this  way,  embedded  in  a  seemingly 
irrelevant  article,  a  fact  or  idea  that  will  suggest  an 
original  line  of  argument. 

(2)  Books.  —  Most  of  these  can  be  found  by  consulting 
the  card  catalogue.  There  will  be  found,  also,  on  the 
reference  shelves,  books  which  give  valuable  statistics, 
such  as.  Census  Reports,  Statesman's  Year  Book,  World 
Almanac,  Who's  Who,  etc.  All  of  the  larger  libraries 
keep  files  of  the  Congressional  Record.  It  requires  sev- 
eral volumes  to  record  the  proceedings  of  each  session  of 
Congress.  These  are  all  given  the  same  volume  number, 
but  are  designated  Part  I,  Part  II,  etc.  If  the  student 
wishes  to  find  a  Congressional  debate  on  his  subject,  he 
should  first  look  in  the  index,  which  will  be  found  in  the 
last  part  of  each  volume,  or  of  the  set  for  each  session. 
The  index  will  state  the  numbers  of  the  Senate  or  House 
Bills  which  deal  with  the  subject.  He  should  then  turn 
to  the  list  of  House  Bills  or  of  Senate  Bills,  which  are 


136  ORAL  ENGLISH 

• 

arranged  according  to  number,  to  find  the  pages  upon 
which  the  debate  is  recorded. 

(3)  Pamphlets.  —  The  United  States  government  issues 
in  pamphlet  form  a  great  deal  of  material  upon  debatable 
subjects.  This,  if  it  is  not  already  in  the  library,  can  be 
obtained  without  charge  through  the  Congressman  from 
one's  district.  Organizations  which  have  been  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  urging  or  opposing  some  reform  usually 
publish  literature  which  they  are  glad  to  distribute. 
Material  of  this  kind  is  very  abundant  on  such  subjects 
as  prohibition,  woman  suffrage,  initiative  and  referendum, 
socialism,  ship  subsidy,  naval  increase,  labor,  etc.  The 
student  can  usually  secure  the  addresses  of  the  publishing 
houses  of  these  organizations  through  some  one  in  his 
own  town  who  is  interested  in  the  subject. 

How  to  Copy  References.  —  Those  who  have  worked 
much  in  libraries  have  discovered  that  it  saves  time  to 
be  systematic  in  the  copying  of  references.  It  is  well  to 
copy  each  reference  on  a  separate  card  or  slip  of  paper. 
These  slips  will  be  much  more  convenient  than  a  note- 
book list  of  references  if  one  is  working  in  a  large  library, 
for  the  librarian  can  place  the  slip  in  each  volum.e  as  he 
secures  it.  This  plan  permits  the  student  to  proceed  with 
his  reading  while  the  librarian  is  searching  for  other 
volumes.  The  separate  slips  are  especially  useful  to  de- 
baters. When  a  student  has  read  a  reference,  he  may 
label  it  Affirmative,  Negative,  or  General,  star  it  if  it  is 
particularly  good,  and  pass  it  on  to  his  colleagues. 

One  should  copy  practically  all  of  the  items  given  either 
in  the  Reader's  Guide  or  in  the  card  catalogue.  These 
consist  of  the  name  of  the  author,  title  -of  the  article, 
name  of  the  magazine,  volume,  page  numbers,  and  date. 


HOW  TO   USE  A  LIBRARY  137 

Nearly  all  of  these  items  are  essential  for  finding  purposes. 
The  exact  date  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  all  recent  and 
therefore  unbound  magazines  and  of  such  magazines 
as  begin  each  issue  with  page  one.  In  addition, 
some  of  them  help  to  guide  the  student  as  to  the  order 
in  which  he  should  read,  and  are  especially  necessary  if 
one  wishes  to  send  to  a  state  library  for  material.  The 
name  of  the  author  will  enable  the  student  to  read,  early 
in  his  study,  those  authors  which  he  finds  to  be  best 
informed.  The  title  often  indicates  whether  or  not  the 
article  bears  directly  upon  the  subject,  and  the  date  will 
show  whether  the  material  is  likely  to  have  become 
obsolete  by  the  movement  of  events. 

II.   How  TO  Select  Material 

The  student  must  next  learn  to  select  from  a  large 
mass  of  material  that  which  will  be  most»useful  to  him. 
It  has  been  suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraph  that 
the  student  read  his  best  material  first,  using  as  a  guide 
in  this  matter  the  name  of  the  author,  the  title,  and  the 
date. 

Skimming.  —  Let  us  now  consider  the  manner  of  read- 
ing a  given  magazine  or  book.  The  student  should 
learn  to  skim  thoughtfully  and  systematically.  Sir 
Francis  Bacon  says  in  his  quaint  way,  "Some  books  are 
to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be 
chewed  and  digested;  that  is,  some  books  arc  to  be  read 
only  in  parts,  others  to  be  read  but  not  curiously,  and  some 
few  to  be  read  wholly  and  with  diligence  and  attention." 
What  Bacon  says  of  books  as  a  whole  is  true  also  of  parts 
of  books  and  of  articles.  An  unpracticed  reader  will  often 
plod    along    through    an    article    in    painstaking    fashion. 


138  ORAL  ENGLISH 

taking  copious  notes.  Several  hours  may  thus  be  con- 
sumed on  some  abstruse,  unintelHgible,  and  perhaps  irrel- 
evant material,  while  clear,  spicy  reading  matter  must  be 
left  untouched  for  lack  of  time. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  an  article  is  valu- 
able, the  student  should  read  the  introduction,  the  con- 
clusion, and  the  first  and  last  sentence  of  each  paragraph. 
In  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  a  book  is  valuable, 
the  student  should  read  the  conclusion  and  consult  the 
table  of  contents  and  index.  When  he  has  found  useful 
material,  he  should  read  it  carefully  and  thoughtfully. 
"The  careful  reader  is  not  necessarily  the  slow  reader,  but 
he  who  knows  when  to  slacken  his  pace  and  read  slowly."  ^ 

III.   How  TO  Take  Notes 

A  speaker  must  not  only  learn  how  to  read,  but  he  must 
study  the  art  of  note-taking.  Those  who  shirk  this  duty 
are  likely,  in  their  speeches,  to  deal  in  generalities  because 
they  are  at  a  loss  for  facts  to  support  their  assertions. 

Substance  of  the  Thought.  —  Good  notes  record  the 
substance  of  the  thought  and  not  the  exact  words  of  the 
author.  To  repeat  the  words  of  an  author  without  giving 
him  due  credit  is  literary  theft,  for,  while  an  author  cannot 
copyright  an  idea,  he  does  copyright  the  mode  of  its  ex- 
pression. This  does  not  mean  that  it  is  criminal  to  notice 
and  incorporate  in  one's  own  statements  some  particularly 
apt  phrase,  for  it  is  only  by  thoughtful  attention  to  these 
matters  that  the  student  can  improve  his  own  style  of 
expression.  One's  speech  should  not,  however,  be  a 
mosaic  made  up  of  sentences  and  phrases  culled  from  the 
writings  of  others. 

1  Laycock  and  Spofford,  Manual  of  Argumentation,  pp.  34-35. 


HOW  TO  USE  A  LIBR-\RY  139 

Again,  if  the  exact  words  of  others  are  copied  and 
repeated,  the  speech  will  lack  the  personal  stamp  which  is 
necessary  to  a  forceful  style.  Sentences  which  are  read- 
able and  pleasing  when  seen  on  the  printed  page  seem 
stilted  and  bookish  when  they  fall  from  the  Hps  of  a  high- 
school  boy  or  girl.  If  the  student  wishes  to  make  an 
effective  speech,  he  should  assimilate  the  ideas  —  make 
them  a  part  of  himself.  Dr.  R.  M.  Alden  has  said  on 
this  point,  "The  Congressional  Record  and  the  North 
American  Review  may  reappear  in  debate  in  a  new  form, 
just  as  last  week's  meat  and  vegetables  reappear  this  week 
in  bone  and  blood  and  muscle." 

Above  all,  the  habit  of  repeating  the  words  of  others 
prevents  a  student  from  developing  originality.  As  Mr. 
Esenwein  says,  "The  young  speaker  who  dares  to  be  him- 
self, casting  artificiahty  to  the  winds,  will  begin  by  making 
less  brilliant  speeches  than  his  companions  who  copy 
and  crib,  but  his  power  and  invention  will  increase  and  he 
will  end  far  in  advance  of  his  less  original  rivals." 

Intelligible  although  Condensed.  —  Well-taken  notes 
have  both  of  these  quahties.  The  members  of  a  debating 
team  should  be  able  to  read  and  understand  each  other's 
notes.  If  taken  in  the  correct  form,  they  may  be  filed  and 
will  be  usable  many  years  after  they  are  written.  In 
order  that  notes  may  be  valuable  in  this  way,  both  to 
oneself  and  to  others,  it  is  necessary  (i)  that  the  penman- 
ship be  legible,  (2)  that  only  such  abbreviations  be  used 
as  are  generally  understood,  and  (3)  that  each  idea  be 
expressed  in  a  brief  but  complete  sentence. 

It  is  quite  possible  to  write  one's  notes  in  complete 
sentences  and  yet  condense  them.  The  degree  of  conden- 
sation  depends   upon    the   value   of   the   material.     One 


I40  ORAL  ENGLISH 

brief  sentence  may  give  the  substance  of  a  long  sentence, 
of  a  paragraph,  or  of  a  whole  article.  Sometimes  only 
the  whereabouts  of  a  fact,  story,  or  illustration  need  be 
noted.  This  should  be  done  if  the  speaker  is  uncertain 
as  to  whether  he  will  be  able  to  use  the  material.  In 
making  note  of  an  exact  quotation,  it  is  desirable  to  omit 
all  unnecessary  portions,  indicating  such  omissions  by 
dotted  hnes.  The  student  should  take  care,  however,  in 
making  such  excerpts,  not  to  misrepresent  the  thought 
of  the  author. 

Written  Form.  —  Certain  matters  of  form,  if  carefully 
observed,  will  add  greatly  to  the  usefulness  of  one's  notes. 
The  student  should  take  his  notes  on  small  slips  of  paper, 
one  point  to  the  page,  with  a  keyword  indicating  the  main 
idea  of  the  note  in  the  upper  left  corner.  This  system 
will  help  him  greatly  in  the  arrangement  of  his  speech 
material.  He  can  easily  shift  his  slips  so  as  to  bring  to- 
gether all  notes  on  one  phase  of  the  subject.  It  will  also 
enable  him,  if  a  debater,  to  sort  out  readily  on  the  platform 
any  notes  which  are  hkely  to  be  useful  to  him  in  refutation. 

At  the  foot  of  each  note  should  be  placed  the  complete 
reference  consisting  of  the  author,  magazine,  volume,  exact 
page,  and  date.  This  should  be  done  for  several  reasons. 
In  the  first  place,  the  student  may  wish  to  re-read  the 
article,  if  it  should  prove  later  to  be  of  greater  value  than 
he  had  at  first  thought,  or  if  some  one  else  should  challenge 
the  accuracy  of  his  statements.  In  the  second  place,  the 
name  of  the  author  and  the  date  are  often  important  fac- 
tors in  determining  the  value  of  one  statement  as  compared 
with  opposing  statements. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  (i)  how 
to  find  material  in  a  Hbrary,  (2)  how  to  select  the  best 


HOW  TO   USE  A  LIBRARY  141 

and  read  it  with  the  least  possible  waste  of  time,  and  (3) 
how  to  take  notes  so  that  they  will  be  of  the  greatest 
service. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

How  TO  Use  a  Libraiiy 
Introduction. 

I.   When  to  consult  one's  elders. 
II.   Time  necessar>'  for  research  work. 
III.    Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   How  to  find  references  —  definition. 

A.  General  idea. 

1.  Compared  to  the  artist. 

2.  His  own  mind. 

3.  General  references. 

((?)    Encyclopedias,  etc. 
{b)    Books  of  briefs. 

(i)    Warning  against  two'uses  of. 

B.  Special  references. 

I.   IMagazine  articles. 


2. 


(«) 

Reader' 

s  Guide  —  how  issued 

ib) 

Regular  order. 

(i) 

Recent  first. 

(2) 

Bindery. 

(3) 

Great  character. 

{c) 

Thoroughness. 

(i) 

Topics. 

(2) 

Short  time. 

'U.nrX 

(3) 

Long  time. 

XJOO* 

{a) 

is. 
Catalogue. 

(b) 

Reference  works. 

(c) 

Congressional  Record. 

Pamphlets. 

(«) 

Government. 

(b) 

Organizations. 

142  ORAL  ENGLISH 

I.        C.    How  to  copy  references. 

1.  Use  of  slips  in  a  library. 

2.  Use  by  debaters. 

3.  Items  and  reasons  for  copying  them, 
II.   How  to  select  material. 

A.   Skimming. 

1.  Bacon. 

2.  Fault  of  unpracticed  readers. 
.3.   How  to  determine  the  value  of 

(a)    An  article. 
lb)    A  book. 
ni.   How  to  take  notes. 

A.  Substance  of  the  thought. 

1.  Literary  theft. 

2.  Personal  stamp  —  Alden. 

3.  Development  —  Esenwein. 

B.  Intelligible  although  condensed. 

1.  Two  reasons. 

2.  Three  requisites. 

3.  Possibility  of  condensation. 

(a)    Degree. 

{b)    Whereabouts. 

(c)    Exact  quotations. 

C.  Written  form. 

1.  Method  described. 

2.  Usefulness  of  system. 

(a)    In  arrangement. 
{b)    In  refutation. 

3.  Complete  reference. 

(o)    Reasons. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Study  the  text  as  far  as  Division  II,  and  be  able  to 
recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Using  the  Reader's  Guide  for  suggestion,  choose 
some  topic  upon  which  you  can  find  at  least  three  magazine  articles. 
Copy  those  references  which,  from  their  titles  and  authors,  appear 
to  be  the  best.  Assure  yourself  that  they  can  be  found  in  the  Ubrary. 
Use  the  Guides  of  several  years  if  necessary. 


HOW  TO   USE  A  LIBRARY  143 

Exercise  III,  —  Complete  the  reading  of  the  chapter  and  be  able 
to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

Exercise  IV.  —  Begin  your  reading  and  note-taking.     Let  each 
note  resemble  the  following: 


NAVAL  WASTE 

American  na\y  during   15  years  has  cost  45%    more    than 
Kaiser's.     Yet  his  is  more  powerful. 

Geo.  W  L.  Meyer,  former  Sec'y  of  Navy. 
N.  Am.  Rev.  201:  248,  F,  '15. 


Exercise  V.  —  Using  the  material  which  you  have  gathered  in 
your  reading,  arrange  a  word  outline  for  a  speech  of  not  less  than  three 
and  not  more  than  four  minutes.  Try  to  follow  instructions  given  in 
Chapter  \'1I  with  regard  to  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  in  arrange- 
ment. Do  not  fail:  (i)  to  write  a  salutation;  (2)  to  write  a  theme 
sentence;  and  (3)  to  write,  if  your  speech  is  to  be  an  argument,  sub- 
ordinate sentences  for  each  reason  or  proof. 

Exercise  VI.  —  Be  able  to  deliver  the  speech  arranged  in  Ex.  V. 
Notes  as  well  as  word  outline  should  be  ready  to  hand  in. 

Exercise  VII.  —  Written  Review.  Be  able  to  write  in  class  on 
any  of  the  following  topics: 

1.  Relation  Between  Argument  and  Persuasion. 

2.  The  Game  of  Debate. 

3.  Relation  of  Debate  to  Life. 

4.  Value  of  Debate  as  an  Exercise  in  Public  Speaking. 

5.  The  Burden  of  Proof. 

6.  A  Balanced  Question. 

7.  How  to  Get  a  General  Idea  of  a  Subject. 

8.  How  to  Find  Special  References,  as  Magazines,  Books,  and 
Pamphlets. 

().   Selection  of  Material. 
ID.    Characteristics  of  (iood  Notes. 
1  I     Convenience  of  Form. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

ANALYSIS   OF   THE    QUESTION 

Introduction.  —  Analysis,  according  to  the  dictionary, 
is  the  study  of  a  thing  in  its  separate  parts  and  in  their 
relation  to  each  other.  A  chemist,  for  instance,  analyzes 
a  drop  of  water.  He  finds  that  it  is  composed  of  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one.  The  debater, 
in  like  manner,  analyzes  a  question  for  discussion.  In  so 
doing,  he  finds  that  certain  facts  and  arguments  have  a 
bearing  on  the  question  and  that  others  do  not.  He 
finds  also  that  some  facts  and  arguments  have  a  more 
important  bearing  than  others. 

The  process  of  analysis  in  debate  has  been  divided,  for 
the  convenience  of  discussion,  into  two  steps.  The  first 
step  is  to  find  out  what  the  question  means.  The  second 
step  is  to  find  the  main  issue,  or  main  difference  of  opinion. 
The  two  steps  are  not,  however,  separate  and  distinct, 
the  one  being  completed  before  the  next  is  begun.  A 
change  in  the  definition  may  make  necessary  a  change  in 
the  main  issue  and  vice  versa.  As  will  be  seen  more 
clearly  later  on,  the  process  of  analysis  must  be  continuous. 
The  successful  debater  begins  to  analyze  the  question 
when  it  is  first  presented  to  him  and  he  does  not  cease 
the  process  until  the  public  discussion  has  been  completed. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn  (i)  how  to  find  the  defini- 
tion of  the  question,  (2)  how  to  find  the  main  issue,  and  (3) 
the  value  of  careful  analysis. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  QUESTION  145 

I.   The  Definition 

Dictionary.  —  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  look  up 
certain  words  in  the  dictionary.  This  is,  however,  only 
a  beginning.  The  definition  of  a  debatable  question  is 
usually  a  much  larger  matter  than  the  definition  of  the 
words  contained  in  the  statement  of  the  question. 

Circumstances.  —  The  real  definition  of  the  question 
is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstances  out  of  which  the  ques- 
tion has  arisen.  As  we  learned  in  a  previous  chapter,  the 
aftirmative  in  most  debatable  questions  is  required  to 
advocate  some  change.  Let  us  consider  again  the  propo- 
sition, "Resolved,  That High  School  should  adopt  a 

system  of  student  government."  Evidently,  the  term 
which  needs  definition  in  this  question  is  "a.  system  of 
student  government."  Now  there  have  been,  perhaps, 
as  many  systems  of  student  government  as  there  have 
been  experiments  in  this  line.  It  is  the  privilege  of  the 
afilrmative  to  advocate  the  very  best  possible  plan,  while 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  negative  to  discover  the  flaws  in  this 
best  plan.  In  order  to  determine  which  is  the  best  plan, 
the  debater  must  study  the  history  of  the  question;  that 
is,  he  must  compare  all  the  plans  which  have  been  tried 
or  suggested  and  select  the  best  features  of  each. 

If  a  debater  finds  his  definition  in  this  way,  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  question,  it  will  not  be  far-fetched,  or  made 
to  favor  his  own  side  unreasonably.  This  is  an  important 
point,  since  an  effort  to  define  a  question  unreasonably 
is  more  likely  to  injure  than  to  help  a  debater.  (See 
Appendix  V(a)  for  a  brief  definition  of  student  govern- 
ment.) 

An  attcmi)t  t(^  answer  the  following  questions  will  help 


146  ORAL  ENGLISH 

a  debater  to  find  this  best  and  at  the  same  time  reasonable 
plan:  (i)  What  circumstances  seem  to  make  a  change 
necessary?  (2)  Just  what,  in  detail,  is  the  change  which 
is  generally  advocated?  (3)  Just  how,  in  detail,  would 
this  change  work  out  in  practice? 

Prepared  by  Both  Sides.  —  The  negative  as  well  as 
the  affirmative  speakers  should  prepare  a  definition,  for 
they  cannot  attack  a  plan  intelligently  until  they  know 
what  it  is.  Again,  a  question  is  sometimes  so  worded  that 
its  meaning  is  not  clear.  In  such  a  case,  both  sides  should 
come  to  a  previous  agreement  as  to  the  definition,  or 
should  agree  to  re- word  the  question;  for  a  quibble  on 
the  platform  about  the  meaning  of  the  question  is  very 
unpleasant  for  the  audience. 

II.   The  Main  Issue 

Clash  of  Opinion.  —  The  first  step  toward  finding  the 
main  issue,  or  main  difference  of  opinion,  is  the  preparation 
of  a  clash  of  opinion.  This  consists  of  a  list  of  points  on 
both  sides  of  the  question  and  should  be  in  process  of 
construction  all  the  time  that  the  debater  is  thinking 
and  reading  about  his  question.  These  points  should  be 
arranged  on  a  large  sheet  of  paper  in  such  a  way  that  the 
affirmative  points,  very  briefly  phrased,  shall  appear  in 
the  left-hand  column,  each  with  its  negative  answer  op- 
posite, in  the  right-hand  column.  The  clash  may  con- 
sist of  from  five  to  twenty-five  differences  of  opinion, 
the  number  depending  upon  the  thoroughness  with  which 
the  debater  has  studied  his  subject. 

The  student  should  be  careful  to  place  no  point  in  either 
the  affirmative  or  negative  list  which  can  be  admitted  by 
the  other  side,  for  such  a  point  will   be  of  slight  value. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  QUESTION  147 

If,  for  example,  the  affirmative  were  advocating  a  national 
prohibition  law,  the  negative  might  admit  the  evil  effects 
of  liquor  and  yet  favor  another  method  of  abolition.  If 
the  negative  should  take  this  position  and  should  advocate 
gradual  abolition  by  means  of  state  laws,  all  discussion 
by  the  affirmative  of  the  evils  of  intemperance  would  be 
a  waste  of  time. 

Again,  it  is  well  for  the  debater,  in  preparing  a  clash, 
to  distinguish  between  points  and  proofs,  placing  them  in 
separate  columns,  for  a  point  which  lacks  proof  will  have 
very  little  weight  in  the  final  discussion. 

Statement  of  the  Issue.  —  When  the  clash  of  opinion 
is  completed,  the  student  should  try  to  decide  which  is 
the  strongest  point  on  each  side.  This  will  be  the  one 
which  is  most  difficult  for  the  other  side  to  answer.  He 
should  then  write  a  question  in  which  he  asks  which  has 
more  weight,  the  strongest  point  on  the  affirmative  or 
the  strongest  point  on  the  negative.  This  question  will 
be  the  statement  of  the  main  issue.  Let  us  again  seek  an 
illustration  in  the  question  on  student  government.  The 
claim  on  the  affirmative  which  seems  most  difficult  to 
refute  is  that,  even  if  the  experiment  is  not  altogether 
a  success  in  itself,  it  will  give  to  young  people  a  practical 
training  in  citizenship.  On  the  other  hand,  the  strongest 
negative  point  seems  to  be  that  there  is  a  likeHhood  of 
indifference  and  failure  and  consequently  of  the  demoraliz- 
ing influence  of  bad  government.  The  main  issue,  there- 
fore, is,  "Will  the  possible  benefit  from  practical  training 
in  citizenship  outweigh  the  danger  of  the  demoralizing 
influence  of  bad  government?"  (See  Appendix  V.  </.) 
The  question,  "Do  the  advantages  of  student  government 
outweigh  its  disadvantages?"  would  not  be  a  good  state- 


148  ORAL  ENGLISH 

ment  of  the  main  issue,  since  it  does  not  show  that  the 
debater  has  analyzed  his  question  and  found  the  strongest 
point  on  each  side. 

A  question  occasionally  arises  in  which  it  seems  almost 
impossible  to  reduce  the  subject  matter  of  discussion  to 
one  main  issue.  If  one  can  succeed  in  his  attempt,  how- 
ever, he  will  be  well  rewarded  for  the  efifort  expended,  for 
it  will  help  to  give  to  his  work  unity  and  definiteness  of 
aim.  If  the  debater  is  content  to  discuss  several  issues,  he 
may  prove  his  case  from  one  standpoint  and  fail  to  prove 
it  from  the  other  standpoints.  If,  however,  he  can 
reduce  the  matter  to  one  main  issue  and  prove  that,  he 
has  won  his  case,  for  he  has  practically  shown  that  the 
strongest  point  on  one  side  is  stronger  than  the  strongest 
point  on  the  other  side.  The  main  issue,  then,  expresses 
what  the  affirmative  must  prove  or  what  the  negative  must 
disprove  in  order  to  win  his  case. 

III.   Value  of  Analysis 

The  constant  mental  sifting  and  weighing  process,  called 
analysis,  which  goes  on  while  one  is  defining  his  question 
and  finding  the  main  issue,  is  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
debater. 

Saves  Time.  —  In  the  first  place,  it  is  a  great  "time- 
saver,"  for  it  prevents  him  from  taking  elaborate  notes  on 
phases  of  the  subject  which  are  relatively  unimportant. 
This  is  true  even  though  he  may  be  unable  to  arrive  at  a 
satisfactory  analysis  until  near  the  close  of  his  preparation. 

Makes  Him  a  Stronger  Match  for  Opponent.  —  The 
value  of  studying  both  sides  of  the  question  is  not  gen- 
erally appreciated  by  young  debaters.  A  successful  law- 
yer  once    said    that   if  he   should   be   granted   but   two 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  QUESTION  149 

hours  to  prepare  for  a  case  in  court,  he  would  begin  by 
studying  his  opponent's  case.  This  part  of  the  prepara- 
tion has  been  compared  to  the  work  of  a  commander  before 
a  battle.  Prof.  G.  P.  Baker  says,  ''The  skillful  forensic 
worker,  like  a  great  general,  will  wish  to  know,  not  only 
where  all  the  weak  places  as  well  as  the  strong  in  his  own 
lines  are,  but,  as  far  as  possible,  the  weak  and  strong  places 
in  the  enemy's  lines."  Another  parallel  may  be  found  in 
football.  A  team  must  know  not  only  its  own  plays  but 
also  those  of  its  opponents,  for  plays  must  be  anticipated 
in  order  to  be  blocked. 

The  finding  and  presenting  of  the  main  issue  may  also 
be  compared  to  the  drawing  of  the  lines  on  a  tennis  court, 
beyond  which  no  contestant  may  play  for  gain.  If  he 
sends  a  ball  outside  the  court,  his  play  merely  adds  to  the 
points  of  his  opponent.  In  like  manner  a  debater  may 
seek  to  make  his  case  appear  strong  by  appeals  to  senti- 
ment or  by  flights  of  rhetoric,  but  if  his  opponent  has 
clearly  and  truly  outlined  the  main  issue,  the  false  argu- 
ments will  fall  on  the  audience  like  the  tennis  ball  in  the 
outer  court,  only  to  add  to  the  score  of  his  opponent. 

Unifies  Aim.  —  Clear  analysis  enables  a  debater  to 
know  his  own  main  purpose.  As  O'Connell  says,  in  his 
Irish  way,  "If  you  aim  at  nothin',  you  will  be  sure  to 
hit  it."  To  use  another  figure,  the  debater  who  analyzes 
well  knows  which  slant  the  nail  must  take  and  can  "hit 
it  on  the  head"  with  force. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
that  the  debater  should  formulate  a  reasonable  definition 
by  studying  the  history  of  the  question;  (2)  that,  in  order 
to  arrive  at  the  main  issue,  In-  sliould  make  a  clash  of 
opinion,  choose  the  strongest  point  on  each  side,  and  ex- 


I50  ORAL    ENGLISH 

press  these  two  points  in  the  form  of  a  question;  (3)  that 
this  sifting  and  weighing  process  of  the  mind  is  of  great 
value  to  the  debater. 

TOPICAL    OUTLINE 

Analysis  of  the  Question 


Introduction. 

I. 

Definition. 

A.   Cliemist. 

B.   Debater. 

II. 

Two  steps. 

A.   Relation  to  each  other. 

B.    Continuous  process. 

III. 

Advance  summary. 

Body. 

I. 

The  definition. 

A.   Dictionary. 

B.   Circumstances. 

I.   The  best  plan. 

2.   Reasonable  plan. 

3.   Three  questions. 

C.   Preparation  by  both  sides. 

I.   Necessity. 

2.   Previous  agreement. 

II. 

The  main  issue. 

A.   Clash  of  opinion. 

I.   Description  of. 

2.   Admitted  points. 

3.   Proof. 

B.   Statement  of  the  issue. 

I.   How  framed. 

{a)   Illustration. 

{b)   Incorrect  example. 

2.   Value  of  one  issue  as  compared  with  several 

III. 

Value  of  analysis. 

.4 .   Saving  of  time  —  notes. 

AN.\LYSIS  OF  THE  QUESTION  151 

III.   B.    ]\Iakes  him  strong  match  for  opponent. 


I.   Lawyer. 

2.   Parallel  case  to 

(0)    Commander, 

(b)    Football. 

3.   Tennis  court. 

c. 

Unifies  aim. 

I.-  O'Connell. 

2.   Nail. 

Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  as  far  as  Division  III  and  be  able 
to  recite  from  the  topical  outline.  Read  carefully  in  connection  with 
this  chapter  the  specimen  definition  and  clash  of  opinion  on  "Student 
Government."     (Appendix  V  (a)). 

Exercise  II.  —  A  question  from  Appendix  VI  may  be  chosen  for 
class  study.  Each  student  should  read  one  or  more  general  references 
on  the  class  subject  and  prepare  a  tentative  definition,  clash  of  opin- 
ion, and  main  issue. 

Exercise  III.  —  Finish  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline.     Copy  references  on  the  class  question. 


152  ORAL  ENGLISH 

READING   LESSON   VII 

1.  From  a  speech  by  Macaulay  in  favor  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832: 

"What  facts  does  my  honorable  friend  produce  in  support  of  his 
opinion?  One  fact  only,  and  that  a  fact  which  has  absolutely  nothing 
to  do  with  the  question.  The  effect  of  this  reform,  he  tells  us,  would 
be  to  make  the  House  of  Commons  more  powerful.  It  was  all-power- 
ful once  before,  in  the  beginning  of  1649.  Then  it  cut  off  the  head 
of  the  king,  and  abolished  the  House  of  Peers.  Therefore,  if  it  again 
has  the  supreme  power,  it  will  act  in  the  same  manner.  Now,  sir, 
it  was  not  the  House  of  Commons  that  cut  off  the  head  of  Charles 
the  First;  nor  was  the  House  of  Commons  then  all-powerful.  It  had 
been  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  by  successive  expulsions.  It  was 
under  the  absolute  dominion  of  the  army.  A  majority  of  the  House 
w'as  willing  to  take  the  terms  offered  by  the  king.  The  soldiers  turned 
out  the  majority;  and  the  minority,  not  a  sixth  part  of  the  whole 
House,  passed  those  votes  of  which  my  honorable  friend  speaks,  — 
votes  of  which  the  middle  classes  disapproved  then,  and  of  which  they 
disapprove  still." 

2.  From  Macaulay: 

"Many  politicians  of  our  time  are  in  the  habit  of  laying  it  down 
as  a  self-evident  proposition,  that  no  people  ought  to  be  free  till  they 
are  fit  to  use  their  freedom.  The  maxim  is  worthy  of  the  fool  in  the 
old  story,  who  resolved  not  to  go  into  the  water  until  he  had  learned 
to  swim.  If  men  are  to  wait  for  liberty  until  they  become  wise  and 
good  in  slavery,  they  may  indeed  wait  forever." 

3.  From  a  discussion  of  "Property  in  Slaves,"  by  William  Ellery 
Channing: 

"But  this  property,  we  are  told,  is  not  to  be  questioned  on  account 
of  its  long  duration.  'Two  hundred  years  of  legislation  have  sanc- 
tioned and  sanctified  negro  slaves  as  property.'  Nothing  but  respect 
for  the  speaker  could  repress  criticism  on  this  unhappy  phraseology. 
We  wiU  trust  it  escaped  him  without  thought.  But  to  confine  our- 
selves to  argument  from  duration;  how  obvious  the  reply!  Is  in- 
justice changed  into  justice  by  the  practice  of  ages?  Is  my  victim 
made  a  righteous  prey  because  I  have  bowed  him  to  the  earth  till 


READING    LESSON    VII  153 

he  cannot  rise?  For  more  than  two  hundred  years  heretics  were 
burned,  and  not  by  mobs,  not  by  lynch  law,  but  by  the  decrees  of 
councils,  at  the  instigation  of  theologians,  and  with  the  sanction  of 
the  laws  and  religions  of  nations;  and  was  this  a  reason  for  keeping 
up  the  fires,  that  they  had  burned  two  hundred  years?  In  the  Eastern 
world,  successive  despots,  not  for  two  hundred  years,  but  for  twice 
two  thousand,  have  claimed  the  right  of  life  and  death  over  millions, 
and,  with  no  law  but  their  own  will,  have  beheaded,  bowstrung, 
starved,  tortured  unhappy  men  without  number  who  have  incurred 
their  wrath;  and  does  the  lapse  of  so  many  centuries  sanctify  murder 
and  ferocious  power?  " 

4.  Patrick  Henry  in  the  Virginia  House  of  Representatives: 

"Caesar  had  his  Brutus,  Charles  I  his  Cromwell  [cries  of  'Treason, 
Treason '3,  and  let  George  III  profit  by  their  example." 

5.  From  Lincoln's  Cooper  Union  Speech: 

"Some  of  you  delight  to  flaunt  in  our  faces  the  warning  against 
sectional  parties  given  by  Washington  in  his  Farewell  Address.  Less 
than  eight  years  before  Washington  gave  that  warning  he  had,  as 
President  of  the  United  States,  approved  and  signed  an  act  of  Con- 
gress enforcing  the  prohibition  of  slavery  in  the  Northwestern  Terri- 
tory, which  act  embodied  the  policy  of  the  government,  upon  that 
subject,  up  to  and  at  the  very  moment  he  penned  that  warning;  and 
about  one  year  after  he  penned  il,  he  wrote  Lafayette  that  he  con- 
sidered that  prohiljition  a  wise  measure,  expressing  in  the  same  con- 
nection his  hope  that  we  should  at  some  time  have  a  confederacy  of 
free  states. 

"Bearing  this  in  mind  and  seeing  that  sectionalism  has  since 
arisen  upon  this  same  subject,  is  that  warning  a  weapon  in  your  hands 
against  us  or  in  our  hands  against  you?  Could  Washington  himself 
speak,  would  he  cast  the  blame  of  that  sectionalism  upon  us  who 
sustain  his  policy,  or  upon  you  who  repudiate  it?  We  respect  that 
warning  of  Washington  and  we  commend  il  to  you,  together  wilh  his 
example  pointing  to  the  right  ;L|)pli(  atioii  of  il." 

6.  WcbsUr  ill  ihc  While  Murder  Trial: 

"The  prisoner's  counsel  catch  at  supposed  flaws  of  evidence,  or 
bad  character  (jf  witnesses,  without  meeting  the  case.     If  I  In-  fac  I  is 


154  ORAL  ENGLISH 

out,  why  not  meet  it?  Do  they  mean  to  deny  that  Captain  White 
is  dead?  One  would  almost  have  supposed  even  that,  from  some 
remarks  that  have  been  made.  Do  they  mean  to  deny  the  conspiracy? 
Or,  admitting  a  conspiracy,  do  they  mean  to  deny  only  that  Frank 
Knapp,  the  prisoner  at  the  bar,  was  abetting  in  the  murder,  being 
present,  and  so  deny  that  he  was  a  principal?  If  the  conspiracy  is 
proved,  it  bears  closely  upon  every  subsequent  subject  of  inquiry. 
Why  do  they  not  come  to  the  fact?  Here  the  defense  is  wholly  in- 
distinct. The  counsel  neither  take  the  ground  nor  abandon  it.  They 
neither  fly  nor  light.  They  hover.  But  they  must  come  to  a  closer 
mode  of  contest.  They  must  meet  the  facts  and  either  deny  or  ad- 
mit them." 

7.  Speech  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  February  i,  1894, 
by  Thomas  B.  Reed: 

"Mr.  Pinchot  compared  our  present  consumption  of  wood  to  the 
case  of  a  man  in  an  open  boat  at  sea,  cut  adrift  from  some  shipwreck 
and  with  but  a  few  days'  supply  of  water  on  board.  He  drinks  all 
the  water  the  first  day,  simply  because  he  is  thirsty,  though  he  knows 
that  the  water  will  not  last  long.  The  American  people  know  that 
their  wood  supply  will  last  but  a  few  decades.  Yet  they  shut  their 
eyes  to  the  facts." 


CHAPTER  XV 

PROOF   AND   ITS   TESTS 

Introduction.  —  Students  sometimes  have  the  mis- 
taken idea  that  debate  consists  of  affirmations  on  one  side 
and  denials  on  the  other.  This  attitude  was  humorously 
illustrated  by  a  cartoon  sketched  by  a  student  to  adver- 
tise a  pubhc  debate.  Two  disreputable  looking  charac- 
ters were  depicted,  each  shaking  his  fist  in  the  face  of  the 
other.  One  was  saying,  "  'Tis,"  and  the  other,  "  'Tain't." 
When  the  debaters  themselves  take  this  attitude,  the 
contest  descends  from  the  level  of  a  debate  to  that  of  a 
dispute. 

We  who  have  studied  this  text,  however,  have  already 
learned  something  of  the  importance  of  proof.  We  have 
learned  that  the  burden  of  proof  rests  at  the  beginning  of 
the  debate  upon  the  affirmative;  that  he  must  not  only 
state  that  his  plan  is  a  good  one,  but  must  also  prove  it. 
We  have  found  that,  if  the  affirmative  proves  his  plan 
to  be  a  good  one,  the  burden  of  proof  is  thereby  shifted 
to  the  negative,  and  that  he,  in  turn,  must  not  only  deny 
his  opponent's  claim  but  also  disprove  it.  It  is  quite 
evident  from  these  facts  that  the  one  who  finally  fails  to 
shift  back  the  burden  of  proof  loses  the  debate. 

When  we  look  further  into  the  nature  of  proof,  we  fmd 
that  it  is  made  up  of  two  elements:  (i)  facts  and  (2)  rea- 
soning about  facts.  In  attempting  to  refute  the  proof  of 
an  opponent,  we  may  either  question  the  facts  or  admit 


156  ORAL  ENGLISH 

the  facts  and  question  the  reasoning  about  the  facts. 
The  latter  method  was  a  favorite  with  Lincoln.  If 
a  student  would  be  a  successful  debater  he  must  ques- 
tion, or  test,  his  own  facts  and  reasonings  as  well  as  those 
of  his  opponent. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i)  how  to  test  facts 
(to  find  whether  or  not  they  are  true),  (2)  how  to  test 
reasoning  (to  find  whether  or  not  it  is  sound),  and  (3)  how 
to  test  statements  which  are  unsupported  either  by  fact 
or  by  reason. 

I.   How  TO  Test  Facts 

Knowledge.  —  We  should  first  ask,  "Is  the  authority 
for  the  fact  in  a  position  to  have  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
subject?"  Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  discus- 
sion concerns  the  ability  of  the  Filipinos  for  self-govern- 
ment. The  testimony  of  a  traveler  who  had  passed  but  a 
few  days  in  the  Philippine  Islands  would  be  less  reliable 
than  that  of  a  missionary  who  had  resided  there  for  a 
dozen  years. 

Prejudice.  —  We  should  next  ask,  "Is  the  authority 
for  the  fact  unprejudiced?"  To  illustrate:  If  Mr.  A.,  a 
Congressman  and  the  author  of  a  bill  providing  for 
Philippine  independence,  should  to  go  the  Islands  and 
return  with  further  evidence  of  the  ability  of  the  Fili- 
pinos for  self-government,  it  might  be  suspected  that  he 
had  found  ability  because  he  was  looking  for  it;  that  his 
testimony  was  colored  by  his  preconceived  notions.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  should  on  his  return  withdraw  his 
support  from  the  measure,  saying  that  he  had  found 
evidence  of  their  inability,  his  testimony  would  be  partic- 
ularly valuable,  since  it  would  be  in  direct  opposition  to 


PROOF  AND 'ITS  TESTS  157 

his  former  ideas  and  would  indicate  absolute  independence 
of  judgment. 

Research.  —  The  debater,  in  order  to  test  authorities 
in  this  way,  must  trace  back  his  facts  from  the  news- 
paper to  the  reliable  magazine  and  from  the  magazine  to 
the  still  more  reliable  government  report.  He  must  also 
consult  Who's  Who  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
standing  of  his  authority.  It  may  be  said  here  that  re- 
searches of  this  nature  are  not  necessary  in  the  case  of 
statements  which  would  generally  be  accepted  as  true, 
but  only  for  those  proofs  which  are  essential  to  the  main 
issue  and  which  might  be  disputed  by  one's  opponent.  It 
is  better  in  the  final  debate  to  cite  a  few  authorities  and 
establish  their  trustworthiness  than  it  is  to  quote  many 
opinions,  for  an  authority  is  of  no  value  unless  the  audi- 
ence recognizes  him  as  such. 


'&^ 


II.   How  TO  Test  Arguments 

Method  in  General.  —  We  may  test  arguments  by  try- 
ing to  see  whether  the  proof  and  the  statement  proved  can 
be  sensibly  joined  by  the  word  because.  When  we  do 
this,  we  fmd  that  our  minds  are  so  constructed  that  they 
will  tell  us  whether  or  not  the  reasoning  is  sound.  For 
example,  it  is  sensible  to  say,  "Mary's  father  should  allow 
her  to  go  to  the  party,  because  it  will  not  interfere  with 
her  lessons."  On  the  contrary,  it  is  not  sensible  to  say, 
"Mary's  father  should  allow  her  to  go  to  the  party  be- 
cause they  are  going  to  decorate  with  the  society  colors." 

General  Conclusions.  We  shall  first  consider  how  to 
test  general  conclusions,  or  generalizations,  as  they  are 
called.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  clubwoman  says,  "High- 
school  boys  do  nothing  but  smoke  and  play  pool  out  of 


158  ORAL  ENGLISH 

school  hours."  If  her  reasoning  were  stated  in  full,  it 
would  read:  "High-school  boys  do  nothing  but  smoke 
and  play  pool  out  of  school  hours,  because  I  know  two  or 
three  high-school  boys  who  do  nothing  else."  When  her 
reasoning  is  analyzed  in  this  way,  it  is  easily  seen  that  she 
has  based  her  general  conclusion  on  an  insufficient  number 
of  special  instances.  Her  generalization  can  be  disproved 
by  the  following  facts:  (i)  many  boys  excel  in  athletics; 
(2)  others  make  high  scholarship  records;  and  (3)  still 
others  earn  their  own  way  through  school. 

Special  Conclusions :  Simple  Method.  —  We  shall  next 
consider  how  to  test  special  conclusions.  Every  special 
conclusion  is  based  either  directly  or  indirectly  upon  some 
general  conclusion.  Therefore,  if  we  can  find  the  general 
conclusion  and  can  disprove  that,  we  shall  have  disproved 
the  special  conclusion  which  is  based  upon  it.  There  are 
three  forms  of  reasoning  which  are  simple  in  their  nature 
and  which  lead  to  special  conclusions. 

(i)  From  a  Known  Fact  to  an  Unknown  Effect.  —  The 
first  form  reasons  from  a  known  fact  forward  to  an  un- 
known effect.  A  debater  may  say,  for  instance,  "Stu- 
dent government  would  cause  the  pupils  to  feel  a  sense  of 
responsibility."  His  reasoning  stated  in  full  would  read: 
"Student  government  would  cause  the  students  to  feel 
a  sense  of  responsibility,  because  all  who  have  responsibility 
placed  upon  them  rise  to  meet  it.''  This  general  statement, 
however,  can  be  disproved,  for  some  students  will  take 
advantage  of  their  student  officers  as  they  do  of  their 
teachers,  and  some  student  officers  in  order  to  become 
popular  will  favor  their  friends. 

(2)  From  a  Known  Fact  Back  to  its  Unknown  Cause.  — 
The  second  form  reasons  from  a  known  fact  backward 


PROOF  AND   ITS  TESTS  159 

to  its  unknown  cause.    A  Republican  campaign  orator,  for 

example,  may  say,  "The  prosperity  of  the  year- was 

caused  by  the  high  tariff."  His  reasoning  stated  in  full 
would  read,  "The  prosperity  was  caused  by  the  high  tariff, 
because  what  follows  is  caused  by  what  precedes."  This 
general  statement,  however,  could  be  disproved  by  the 
Democratic  orator  who  might  show  that  high  tariff  had 
not  always  been  followed  by  prosperity,  or  that  the  pros- 
perity of  the  year had  been  caused  by  particularly 

good  crops,  or  that  prosperity  had  existed  before  the  high 
tariff'  law  was  passed. 

Resemblance.  —  The  third  form  of  reasoning  argues 
from  resemblance.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  de- 
bater may  use  this  form.  He  may  cite  a  parallel  case  or 
he  may  draw  an  analogy.  Tf  a  debater  should  say, 
"Student  government  will  fail  in  V  High  School  because 
it  failed  in  X  High  School,"  he  would  claim  to  cite  a  case 
which  is  parallel.  If  stated  in  full  his  reasoning  would 
read,  "The  failure  of  student  government  in  X  High 
School  proves  that  it  will  fail  in  Y  High  School,  because 
whatever  occurs  once  will  occur  again  under  similar  circum- 
stances." Now  it  may  not  be  possible  to  disprove  this 
general  statement,  but  it  may  be  possible  to  prove  that 
the  cases  are  not  similar,  or  parallel.  It  may  be  shown, 
for  example,  that  the  system  of  government  in  X  High 
School  differs  in  some  essential  particular  from  the  system 
proposed  for  Y  High  School. 

Let  us  next  study  an  example  of  analogy.  A  high- 
school  debater  once  said,  "To  adopt  the  English  cabinet 
system  in  America  would  i)e  like  trying  lo  transj^lant  a 
full-grown  tree;  the  result  would  be  disastrous."  His 
reasoning  if  stated   in    full   would    read:    "The  adoption 


i6o  ORAL  ENGLISH 

of  the  English  cabinet  system  in  America  would  be  dis- 
astrous, because  if  two  tilings  resemble  each  other  in  one 
respect,  they  are  likely  to  resemble  each  other  in  another 
respect.  The  cabinet  system,  like  a  tree,  was  planted 
and  developed  in  one  place.  It  could  not,  therefore,  be 
made  to  grow  in  another  place."  His  opponent  answered 
with  another  analogy  based  upon  the  same  generalization. 
He  said,  "We  do  not  propose  to  transplant  the  English 
system  to  America;  we  propose  merely  to  choose  those 
features  of  the  English  system  which  are  most  valuable 
and  to  engraft  them  upon  the  American  system.  Every- 
one knows  that  a  graft  produces  better  fruit  than  the 
parent  tree."  This  by-play  serves  to  show  us  that,  by 
analogy,  each  debater  could  illustrate  his  point  of  view, 
but  that  neither  of  them  could  prove  his  contention.  In 
other  words,  for  the  purpose  of  illustration  analogy  is 
very  valuable;   for  the  purpose  of  proof  it  is  worthless. 

Special  Conclusions :  Complicated  Methods.  —  There 
are  three  methods  of  disproving  special  conclusions  which 
are  more  complicated  than  those  just  considered. 

The  first  method  is  called  reducing  to  an  absurdity.  By 
this  method,  the  speaker  finds  the  general  statement  upon 
which  the  reasoning  is  based,  assumes  it  to  be  true,  and 
applies  it  to  a  case  that  reveals  its  absurdity.  For  ex- 
ample, a  legislator  once  said,  "I  oppose  prohibition  because 
it  would  deprive  saloon  men  and  others  of  their  property." 
If  stated  in  full,  his  reasoning  would  read:  "Prohibition 
is  wrong  because  men  should  be  allowed  to  own  that  which 
injures  the  public."  His  opponent  in  debate  applied  this 
general  statement  to  a  case  that  made  it  seem  absurd.  He 
said,  "If  you  are  right,  then  we  should  not  confiscate  the 
property  of  a  man  who  sells  milk  from  a  tubercular  cow." 


PROOF  AND   ITS  TESTS  i6i 

The  second  method  is  called  turning  the  tables.  By  this 
method,  a  debater  turns  an  argument  of  his  opponent  to 
his  own  advantage.  Lincoln  made  use  of  this  kind  of 
logic  in  his  Cooper  Union  speech.  (Reading  Lesson  VII, 
5,  page  153.)  The  Southerners  had  said,  in  substance, 
"According  to  Washington's  Farewell  Address,  the  North 
stands  condemned."  Stated  in  full,  their  reasoning  would 
read:  "Washington  condemns  the  North  because  he 
condemns  all  sectionalism."  Lincoln  turned  this  general 
statement  with  greater  force  against  his  opponents,  saying, 
"Then  Washington  condemns  you  even  more  than  he  con- 
demns us,  for  you  would  bring  about  sectionalism  in  the 
interests  of  slavery,  and  he  was  opposed  to  slavery." 

The  third  method  is  called  putting  one^s  opponent  in 
a  dilemma.  This  can  be  done  when  the  opposing  speaker 
is  inconsistent.  Again  we  find  an  example  in  the  debates 
of  Abraham  Lincoln.  His  opponent.  Judge  Stephen  A. 
Douglas,  before  the  election  of  1856,  reasoned:  "The 
national  government  should  not  prohibit  slavery  in  the 
territories,  because  the  people  in  the  territories  have  a  right 
to  vote  slavery  up  or  down.''''  After  the  election,  he  reasoned : 
"A  man  has  a  right  to  hold  his  slave  even  in  a  territory, 
because  slaves  are  property.''  Lincoln  took  the  two 
general  statements  on  which  Judge  Douglas  had  based 
his  conclusions  and  showed  that  they  were  inconsistent. 
"Judge  Douglas,"  he  said,  "is  claiming  that  a  thing  can 
be  lawfully  prohibited  where  it  has  a  lawful  right  to  stay." 
This  keen  analysis  of  his  arguments  placed  the  "Judge" 
in  a  dilemma;  for,  if  he  abandoned  his  first  argument,  he 
would  lose  the  votes  of  Northern  Democrats;  while  if 
he  abandoned  the  second  argument,  he  would  lose  the 
votes  of  Southern  Democrats.     When,  however,  a  debater 


i62  ORAL  ENGLISH 

places  before  his  opponent  two  courses  of  action,  either  of 
which  would  be  disastrous,  he  must  be  careful  that  there 
is  no  third  alternative  by  which  his  opponent  may  escape. 

III.   Unsupported  Statements 

In  our  attempt  to  test  statements,  we  may  meet  with 
those  which  are  supported  neither  by  fact  nor  by  reason- 
ing.    Let  us  consider  two  such  types  of  statements. 

"Begging"  the  Question.  —  A  debater  is  said  to  beg 
the  question  when  he  assumes  as  true  the  very  thing  which 
it  is  his  duty  to  prove.  The  most  common  way  to  "beg" 
the  question  is  to  call  the  policy  of  one's  opponent  by  an 
uncomplimentary  name.  For  example,  the  opponent  of 
city  ownership  of  street  railways  may  say  that  it  is  "social- 
istic." The  debater  in  favor  of  city  ownership,  on  the 
contrary,  may  show:  (i)  that  everything  which  people  do 
in  common,  as  street-cleaning,  etc.,  is  socialistic  in  a  good 
sense;  (2)  that  the  whole  debate  is  being  held  to  determine 
whether  or  not  city  ownership  of  street  railways  goes  too 
far  in  the  direction  of  pure  socialism;  (3)  that  in  calHng 
the  policy  "socialistic"  in  a  bad  sense,  the  first  debater  is 
merely  assuming  what  it  is  his  duty  to  prove. 

Ignoring  the  Question.  —  A  debater  ignores  the  question 
when  he  fails  to  meet  the  issue.  His  fault  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  he  has  not  analyzed  the  subject  and  does  not 
understand  the  issue.  Under  these  circumstances,  he  is 
likely  to  raise  objections  to  a  plan  of  action  but  will  fail  to 
show  that  these  objections  outweigh  its  merits.  Again,  he 
may  ignore  the  issue  intentionally  because  he  knows  that 
his  case  is  weak.  In  such  a  circumstance,  he  is  likely  to 
substitute  for  proof  an  appeal  to  prejudice  or  sympathy. 

It  is  only  necessary  for  the  opponent  to  point  out  this 


PROOF  AXD   ITS  TESTS  163 

situation  to  the  audience.  Macaulay  exposes  this  fallacy 
in  his  attack  on  the  advocates  of  Charles  I,  when  he  says, 
"We  accuse  him  of  having  broken  his  coronation  oath 
and  we  are  told  that  he  kept  his  marriage  vow." 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  (i)  that 
we  can  test  a  fact  by  considering  the  nature  of  the  author- 
ity for  the  fact.  We  have  learned  (2)  that  we  can  test 
reasons  by  trying  to  see  whether  the  proof  and  the  state- 
ment proved  can  sensibly  be  joined  by  the  word  because. 
We  first  applied  this  method  to  general  statements.  When 
we  apphed  it  to  special  statements,  we  found  that  these 
were  always  based  upon  some  general  statement  and  that 
if  the  general  statement  could  be  disproved,  the  special 
statement  which  was  based  upon  it  would  thereby  be 
disproved.  We  have  learned  (3)  that  we  can  test  un- 
supported statements  by  showing  that  the  speaker  is 
either  "begging"  or  ignoring  the  question. 

TOPICAL    OUTLINE 

Proof  and  Its  Tests 
Introduction. 

I.   Difference  between  a  dispute  and  a  debate. 
II.   What  we  have  already  learned  of  the  importance  of  proof. 
III.   Two  elements  in  proof. 
I\'.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   How  to  lest  facts. 

A.  Knowledge  of  authority.  —  Example. 

B.  Prejudice.  —  Two  examples. 

C.  Necessity  of  research. 

I.    \'aluc  of  a  few  good  authorities. 
II.    How  to  test  arguments. 
A.   Melhofl  in  general. 

I.    Natural  working  of  the  mind. 


1 64  ORAL  ENGLISH 

II.  B.    General  conclusions. 

1.  Conclusion  of  clubwoman. 

2.  Reasoning  in  full. 

3.  Answer. 

C.    Special  conclusions  —  based  upon  general  statements. 

1.  Simple  method. 

{a)    Known  fact  to  unknown  effect. 

(i)    Responsibility. 
{h)    Known  fact  to  unknown  cause. 

(i)    Prosperity  and  tarifT. 
((■)    Resemblance. 

(i)    Parallel  case. 

a.    Student   control   in  X  High 
School. 
(2)    Analogy. 

a.   Cabinet  system. 

2.  Complicated  methods. 

(a)    Reducing  to  an  absurdity. 

(i)    Prohibition. 
{b)    Turning  the  tables. 

(i)    Sectionalism, 
(c)    Dilemma. 

(i)    "Squatter    sovereignty"    and    the 
"Dred  Scot"  case. 

(2)    Third  alternative. 

III.  Unsupported  statements. 

A.  "Begging"  the  question. 

I.    Street  railways. 

B.  Ignoring  the  question. 

1.  Failure  to  analyze. 

2.  Intentional. 

3.  Macaulay. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  i.  Read  the  chapter  as  far  as  the  topic  "Special 
Conclusions  —  Simple  Methods,"  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outHne. 

2.  A  mistake  in  reasoning  is  called  a  fallacy.  Point  out  the  fallacy 
in  each  of  the  following: 


PROOF  AND   ITS  TESTS  165 

a.    A  small  boy  said  to  his  uncle,  "KeSp  away  from  that 

horse  because  white  horses  kick." 
i.    A  hundred  years  ago  it  was  held  that  women  were  not 

mentally  capable  of  mastering  the  higher  branches 

taught  in  the  universities. 
c.    Scholarly  men  do  not  make  good  political  leaders. 

3.    Continue  reading  on  the  class  subject. 

Exercise  II.  —  i.  Continue  the  reading  of  the  chapter  as  far  as 
the  topic  "Special  Conclusions  —  Complicated  Methods,"  and  be 
able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

2.  Point  out  the  fallacy  in  the  follo\\-ing  special  statements. 
Write  out  first  the  general  statement  upon  which  each  is  based  and 
then  disprove  it.     What  kind  of  reasoning  is  used  in  each  case? 

a.    If  you  get  your  feet  wet,  you  will  "catch  a  cold." 
h.    Vou  have  a  cold  because  you  did  not  take  your  over- 
coat last  night. 

c.  A  national  referendum  should  be  adopted  in  the  United 

States  because  it  has  been  successful  in  Switzerland. 

d.  A  republic  cannot  rule  a  colony  successfully  any  more 

than  a  debating  society  could  bring  up  a  child  cor- 
rectly. 

3.  Continue  reading  on  the  class  subject. 

Exercise  III.  —  i.  Complete  the  reading  of  the  chapter  and  be 
able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

2.  Classify  each  of  the  arguments  in  Reading  Lesson  VII  (pages 
152-154);  also  the  following: 

a.  A  lawyer  said,  "A  corporation  cannot  make  an  oral 
contract  because  it  has  no  tongue."  The  judge 
replied,  ".According  to  your  argument,  a  corporation 
cannot  make  a  written  contract  because  it  has  no 
hand." 

h.    The  I'.ihie,  Mark  ii:  27-33. 

c.  Jn  a  debate  on  the  question,  "Resolved,  Tliat  Cleve- 

land's policy  with  regard  to  Venezuela  should  be 
approved,"  a  debater  said,  "Cleveland's  policy  was 
mere  jingoism." 

d.  One  of  the  stork   arguments  against   woman  suflrage 

is  that  it  will  break  up  the  home. 

3.  Contiiuie  reading  011  liic  (lass  subjcrl. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE   BRIEF 

Introduction.  —  The  debater,  after  analyzing  his  ques- 
tion and  testing  his  proofs,  must  give  to  his  subject  matter 
the  best  possible  arrangement.  The  more  anxious  a 
speaker  is  to  accompHsh  a  definite  purpose,  the  more  nec- 
essary it  is  that  he  have  a  good  organization.  This  fact 
is  attested  to  by  many  writers  and  speakers.  Austin 
Phillips  says,  "A  skeleton  is  not  a  thing  of  beauty;  but  it 
is  a  thing  which,  more  than  any  other,  makes  the  body 
erect  and  strong  and  swift."  Again,  John  Quincy  Adams 
says,  "You  will  find  hundreds  of  persons  able  to  produce 
a  crowd  of  good  ideas  upon  any  subject  for  one  that  can 
marshal  them  to  advantage.  Disposition  is  to  the  orator 
what  tactics  are  to  the  miUtary  art." 

We  learned  in  Chapter  VII  some  of  the  principles  which 
govern  the  planning  of  a  speech.  All  of  these  can  and 
should  be  applied  to  the  arrangement  of  a  brief,  or  outline 
for  a  debate. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  study  (i)  the  general  structure 
of  a  brief,  (2)  certain  rules  for  form,  and  (3)  the  best 
method  of  partitioning  the  material  between  or  among 
the  speakers. 

1.    General  Structure  of  a  Brief 

Introduction.  —  The  introduction  to  a  brief  should 
consist  of  a  short  statement  of  the  analysis  of  the  question; 


THE  BRIEF  167 

that  is,  a  statement  of  the  delinition,  necessary  historical 
facts,  points  admitted  by  both  sides,  and  the  main  issue. 
The  aim  of  the  introduction  is  to  make  the  situation  clear 
to  the  audience.  For  this  reason,  the  first  affirmative 
speaker  is  the  only  one  who  handles  the  introduction  to 
the  brief  in  the  final  debate.  It  is  necessary,  however, 
that  the  negative  speakers  prepare  an  introduction  to 
their  brief  also,  as  this  will  enable  them  either  to  agree 
or  disagree  intelligently  with  the  analysis  given  by  the 
first  affirmative  speaker. 

Body.  —  The  body  of  the  brief,  or  the  argument  proper, 
contains  the  subject  matter  used  by  all  of  the  speakers 
on  one  side.  The  greater  part  of  this  chapter  will  treat  of 
the  best  method  of  handling  this  subject  matter  from  the 
two  standpoints  of  form  and  arrangement. 

Conclusion.  —  Although  the  conclusion  which  each 
speaker  prepares  for  his  own  speech  should  be  the  sub- 
ject of  much  thought  and  care,  the  conclusion  to  the  brief 
is  a  very  simple  matter.  It  contains  merely  a  summary 
of  the  main  divisions. 

II.   Rules  for  Form 

There  are  certain  rules  for  form  in  the  making  of  a  brief 
which,  if  followed,  will  increase  its  value  not  only  for  the 
debater  himself  but  also  for  others. 

Relative  Importance.  —  The  first  rule  is:  The  relative 
impor lance  of  each  idea  in  the  brief  should  be  indicated  by 
its  position  on  the  page  and  by  the  symbol  which  precedes  it. 
The  most  important  general  or  inclusive  statements  are 
begun  at  the  margin  and  are  preceded  by  Roman  numer- 
als. The  next  most  imi)ortant  are  indented  about  half 
an   inch   atid    are   preceded    by   cai)ital   letters.     Further 


1 68  ORAL  ENGLISH 

subordination  is  indicated  by  further  indention  and  the 
use  of  other  symbols.  The  following  series  of  symbols 
is  in  general  use:  I,  A,  i,  (a),  (i),  a. 

If  the  material  following  any  one  symbol  is  more  than 
sufficient  to  fill  one  line,  care  must  be  taken  to  begin 
the  remaining  words,  not  at  the  margin,  but  immediately 
below  the  word  following  that  particular  symbol.  In 
this  way,  the  space  at  the  left  of  the  page  is  kept  clear 
for  the  larger  headings  only,  and  the  reader  is  able  to 
determine,  at  a  glance,  the  relative  importance  of  the 
points.  For  the  same  reason,  all  preceding  symbols  should 
be  repeated  at  the  top  of  each  page. 

Complete  Sentences.  —  The  second  rule  is:  Each  idea 
should  be  expressed  in  a  complete  sentence.  This  rule  is 
necessary  for  the  reason  that  topics  do  not  clearly  indicate 
the  character  of  the  argument.  If  a  debater,  for  instance, 
places  in  a  brief  on  "Student  Government"  merely  the 
topic  "Sense  of  responsibility,"  he  does  not  indicate 
whether  he  wishes  to  claim  that  student  government  is 
likely  to  create  a  sense  of  responsibility  or  whether  he 
wishes  to  claim  that  it  is  not  likely  to  do  so.  In  this  way 
the  reader  is  unprepared  for  what  is  to  follow.  If  a  brief 
is  correctly  phrased  it  will  indicate,  although  in  con- 
densed form,  the  exact  position  of  the  debater  on  each 
point. 

Thought  Relation.  —  The  third  rule  is :  The  thought 
relation  between  any  point  and  its  subordinate  points  must 
be  expressed  by  for,  or  because;  that  is,  all  subordinate 
points  or  facts  bear  the  relation  of  proof  to  those  state- 
ments under  which  they  are  placed.  This,  as  we  learned 
in  Chapter  VII,  Division  III,  is  the  essential  difference 
between  the  plan  for  an  argument  and  the  plan  for  an 


THE  BRIEF  169 

exposition.  The  rule  does  not,  therefore,  apply  to  the 
introduction  to  a  brief  which  is  in  the  nature  of  an 
explanation  and  should  contain  no  argument. 

Refutation,  if  inserted  in  the  brief,  should  be  governed 
by  the  same  rule.  The  argument  to  be  refuted  should  be 
clearly  stated  and  then  disproved.  For  example,  one 
might  find  the  following  in  an  affirmative  brief  on  "Woman 
Suffrage": 

I.   The  claim  that  women  are  not  well  informed  on  public  ques- 
tions should  have  little  weight,  for 

a.  Experience  has  shown  that,  as  soon  as  women  have 
been  granted  the  franchise,  they  proceed,  quite  as  gen- 
erally as  do  men,  to  inform  themselves. 

If  subordinate  statements  must  prove  those  under 
which  they  fall,  it  is  evident  that  each  statement  in  a  brief 
must  contain  not  more  than  one  idea;  for  it  would  be 
impossible  to  arrange  subordinate  points  so  that  they 
would  prove  two  propositions  at  the  same  time.  For 
instance,  it  would  be  incorrect  to  state  in  a  brief,  "The 
new  plan  would  be  safer  and  cheaper  than  the  old  one," 
for  the  subordinate  facts  which  would  tend  to  prove  the 
one  merit  would  not  tend  to  prove  the  other. 

IIL   How  TO  Partition  the  Material 

Young  debaters  frequently  divide  the  material  so  that 
each  speaker  is  expected  to  handle  three  or  four  points. 
This  is  confusing  to  the  audience.  The  subject  matter 
should  be  j)artitioned  between  two  speakers  or  among 
three  speakers  in  such  a  way  that  each  speech  will  have 
unity,  or,  in  other  words,  so  that  each  speaker  will  be 
required  to  support  only  one  main  proposition. 

Reasonable  Practicable   Partition.  —  Dr.  Alden   in  his 


lyo  ORAL  ENGLISH 

text,  The  Art  of  Debate,  has  suggested  a  partition  which 
works  well  for  three  speakers  in  many  questions: 

Affirmative 

1.  X  is  a  reasonable  plan. 

2.  X  is  a  practicable  plan. 

3.  There  is  no  better  plan. 

Negative 

1.  X  is  not  a  reasonable  plan. 

2.  X  is  not  a  practicable  plan. 

3.  Y  is  a  better  plan. 

This  better  plan  which  the  negative  is  permitted  to 
suggest  is  called  its  constructive  case  as  distinguished  from 
its  destructive  attack  upon  the  case  of  the  affirmative. 
Although  the  last  negative  speaker  may  deal  at  length 
with  this  constructive  case,  the  first  negative  speaker, 
when  he  introduces  the  argument  for  his  side,  should 
give  some  idea  of  its  nature,  since  it  would  be  unfair  to 
give  the  affirmative  no  opportunity  to  consider  it  until 
the  close  of  the  debate. 

The  scheme  noted  above  might  be  adapted  to  a  two- 
speaker  team  as  follows: 

Affirmative 

1.  There  is  no  more  reasonable  plan  than  X. 

2.  There  is  no  more  practicable  plan  than  X. 

Negative 

1.  Y  is  a  more  reasonable  plan. 

2.  Y  is  a  more  practicable  plan. 

Partition  Based  upon  the  Main  Issue.  —  It  is  frequently 
possible  for  a  two-speaker  team  to  deal  with  the  main 


THE  BRIEF  171 

issue  from  two  standpoints.  Let  us  suppose  that  the 
question  is:  ''Resolved,  That  capital  punishment  should 
be  abolished."  Analysis  will  show  that  the  main  issue 
in  this  question  is:  "Will  the  benefit  to  individuals  out- 
weigh the  possible  injury  to  society?"  The  debate  then 
might  be  partitioned  as  follows: 

Affirmative 

1.  The  abolition  of  capital  punishment  would  be  of  great  value 

to  the  individual. 

2.  The  danger  to  society  from  the  abolition  of  capital  punishment 

would  be  very  slight. 

Negative 

1.  Life  imprisonment  as  compared  with  capital  punishment  would 

be  of  slight  value  to  the  individual. 

2.  The  injury  to  society  from  the  abolition  of  capital  punishment 

would  be  very  great. 

Another  example  of  a  partition  based  upon  the  main 
issue  will  be  found  in  the  brief  on  "Student  Government." 
(Appendix  V,  b.) 

Time  Element.  —  In  making  a  partition,  the  debater 
must  also  consider  the  amount  of  time  which  is  necessary 
to  develop  each  portion  of  the  material.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  first  affirmative  will  need  about 
one-third  of  his  time  to  present  an  analysis  of  the  question. 
If  the  negative  side  is  not  permitted  to  have  an  additional 
refutation  speech,  the  last  negative  speaker  must  plan  to 
use  a  large  portion  of  his  time  for  this  purpose.  Under 
these  circumstances,  it  is  necessary  that  the  first  affirma- 
tive and  last  negative  speakers  be  assigned  points  that 
require  less  extensive  handling  than  other  points. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  studied  (i)  the 


172  ORAL  ENGLISH 

general  structure  of  a  brief,  (2)  three  rules  for  form 
which  it  is  necessary  to  follow  in  order  to  make  the  brief 
readable,  and  (3)  the  best  methods  of  partitioning  the 
material. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

The  Brief 
JiilroJitction. 

I.   The  value  of  organization. 

A.  Phillips. 

B.  Adams. 

II.   Review  of  Chapter  VH,  Divisions  I  and  III. 
III.    Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.    General  structure  of  a  brief. 

A.  Introduction. 

1.  What  it  consists  of. 

2.  Its  aim. 

3.  Why  prepared  by  negative  speakers. 

B.  Body. 

I.   What  it  contains. 

C.  Conclusion. 

I.   What  it  contains. 
II.   Rules  for  form. 

A.  Relative  importance. 

1.  How  indicated. 

2.  Where  to  place  the  second  line  of  a  point  and 

why. 

3.  Repetition  of  preceding  symbols. 

B.  Complete  sentences. 

1.  Reason  for  the  rule. 

2.  Example. 

C.  Thought  relation  —  how  expressed. 

1.  Exception  and  reason  for  it. 

2.  Refutation. 

3.  One  idea  only  in  each  statement. 

(a)    Example. 


THE  BRIEF  173 

III.   How  to  partition  the  material.  —  Unity. 

A.  Reasonable-practicable  partition. 

1.  Arranged  for  three  speakers. 

(a)    Constructive  case  —  when  introduced. 

2.  Arranged  for  two  speakers. 

B.  Partition  based  on  the  main  issue. 

1.  Question  of  capital  punishment. 

2.  Question  of  student  government. 

C.  Time  element. 

1.  First  affirmative. 

2.  Last  negative. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  i.  Read  the  chapter  as  far  as  Division  II  and  be 
able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline.  Include  in  your  recitation  a 
review  of  the  indicated  portions  of  Chapter  VII. 

2.  Read  the  specimen  brief  on  "Student  Government"  (Appendix 
V,  b).  Find  in  it  one  example  of  coherence  gained  by  arrangement 
and  one  example  of  emphasis  gained  by  arrangement. 

Exercise  II.  —  Complete  the  reading  of  the  chapter  and  be  able 
to  recite  from  the  topical  outline.  Notice  that  the  specimen  brief 
follows  the  directions  given  in  the  text  as  to  form. 

Exercise  III.  —  i.  Write  a  complete  introduction  to  a  brief  on 
the  class  question,  revising,  if  necessar>',  the  definition  and  main  issue 
which  you  framed  in  connection  with  Chapter  XIV. 

2.  Write  also  a  partition  for  a  two-speaker  team  on  both  sides  of 
the  question.  This  will  consist  practically  of  a  theme  sentence  for 
each  speaker.  Study  the  reasonable-practicable  partition  and  the 
partition  based  on  the  main  issue,  in  order  to  determine  which  would 
be  best  for  this  particular  question. 

3.  Study  your  clash  of  opinion  to  see  whether  there  are  any 
valuable  points  which,  according  to  your  partition,  have  not  been 
assigned  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  speakers. 

Exercise  IV.  —  Using  the  material  which  you  have  gathered  on 
the  subject,  make  a  brief  for  the  side  to  which  you  have  been  assigned. 
Arrange  it  for  two  speakers.  In  so  doing,  lake  into  consideration  all 
of  the  suggestions  made  in  this  chapter.  Place  in  parentheses  after 
each  proof  the  reference  from  which  you  obtained  the  fact. 


174  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Exercise  V.  —  Working  with  your  colleague,  prepare  a  brief  which 
will  include  the  material  gathered  by  each  of  you,  and  which  will 
be,  as  far  as  possible,  satisfactory  to  both. 

Exercise  VI.  —  Be  able  to  write  in  class  on  any  of  the  following 
topics: 

1.  How  to  Define  a  Question. 

2.  How  to  Find  the  Main  Issue. 

3.  Value  of  Analysis. 

4.  How  to  Test  Facts. 

5.  How  to  Test  Arguments. 

6.  Cause  and  Effect. 

7.  Argument  from  Resemblance. 

8.  Reducing  to  an  Absurdity. 

9.  Turning  the  Tables. 

10.  Dilemma. 

11.  Begging  the  Question. 

12.  Ignoring  the  Question. 

13.  The  Three  Rules  for  Form  in  a  Brief. 

14.  The  Partition  of  Material  for  a  Brief. 


READING   LESSON    VIII  175 

READING   LESSON   Vm 

The  following  speech  was  prepared  by  Franklin  W.  Robinson  of 
Long  Beach,  and  formed  part  of  a  championship  contest  which  oc- 
cured  between  Long  Beach  High  School  and  Santa  Ana  High  School, 
California,  May  29,  1908.  Although  defective  in  some  respects,  it 
is  an  excellent  example  of  the  way  in  which  a  speaker  may  develop 
a  speech  from  a  brief  so  as  to  secure  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis: 

Resolved,  That  France  should  adopt  the  policy  of  M.  Delcasse  in 
regard  to  Morocco  at  the  expiration  of  the  Algeciras  Convention. 

First  Affirmative 

1.  Although  we  have  crossed  the  Atlantic  to  find  a  debatable 
question,  we  have  not  chosen  one  which  is  of  foreign  interest  alone. 
In  discussing  the  problems  of  Morocco,  we  deal  with  world  problems. 
They  are  found  wherever  civilization  comes  into  contact  with  bar- 
barism. They  are  problems  that  to-day  confront  England  in  Egypt 
and  Germany  in  West  Africa,  problems  which  w'e  ourselves  must 
solve  in  the  Philippines. 

2.  This  uncivilized  empire  of  the  Moors,  l>dng  there  in  the  north- 
west corner  of  Africa,  but  seven  miles  from  Europe,  has  tried  for  many 
years  to  withstand  the  strong  arm  of  civilization,  but  its  strategical 
position,  its  vast  resources  and  marvelous  fertility  are  too  important 
to  remain  unutilized.  In  recent  years  all  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
have  taken  measures  to  gain  control  of  this  commercial  "prize."  IVL 
Delcasse,  for  seven  years  the  French  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
came  forward  in  1904  as  the  champion  of  French  interests,  which  he 
believed  to  be  predominant  in  this  crumbling  empire.  To  gain  a 
free  hand  in  Morocco  he  first  induced  England,  Spain,  and  Italy  to 
withdraw  their  claims  in  e.xchange  for  like  concessions  elsewhere. 
His  plan  was  then  to  bolster  up  the  native  government  of  the  Moors 
and  gradually  to  penetrate  the  country  by  pacific  methods. 

3.  But  alas  for  France,  such  a  policy  excited  the  envy  of  Germany; 
the  "mailed  fist "  shook  aloft  the  red  banner  of  war.  France  cowered 
and  Delcasse,  the  most  skillful  statesman  of  the  Third  Republic,  was 
forced  to  resign.  Germany's  interference  resulted  in  a  conference  of 
the  world  powers,  which  met  in  1906  at  Algeciras,  Spain.     Here  it 


176  ORAL  ENGLISH 

was  decided  that  this  apple  of  discord  should  be  placed  under  inter- 
national control.  This  agreement,  however,  was  to  extend  over  five 
years  and  will  expire  in  igii.  At  that  time  it  must  be  determined 
whether  Morocco  shall  be  abandoned  to  barbarism,  whether  the 
present  international  control  shall  be  continued,  or  whether  the  ad- 
ministration shall  be  entrusted  to  a  single  power. 

4.  We  of  the  affirmative  are  here  this  evening  to  endeavor  to 
prove  to  you  that  Morocco  should  be  governed  by  one  power  and 
that  the  logical  candidate  for  this  position  is  the  French  Republic. 

5.  As  to  the  practicability  of  adopting  the  first  course,  namely, 
the  independence  of  the  Moors,  there  can  be  no  difference  of  opinion. 
The  country  to-day  exists  in  a  state  of  anarchy.  We  find  two  pre- 
tenders disputing  with  a  weak  and  indolent  Sultan  for  the  throne. 
Industry  is  paralyzed  and  the  lives  and  property  of  8,000  Europeans 
are  in  constant  danger.  Such  conditions  in  the  twentieth  century 
are  intolerable.  This  mediaeval  land  must  submit  either  to  an 
international  force  or  to  the  protection  of  a  single  power. 

6.  Will  a  continuation  of  the  present  international  control  be 
advisable?  When  we  study  the  history  of  such  government  in  Mace- 
donia, we  can  have  little  confidence  in  such  a  policy.  This  country 
is  to-day  in  a  worse  plight  than  several  years  ago,  simply  because  what 
belongs  to  everyone  belongs  to  no  one.  Eg>'ptian  history  is  no  less 
a  convincing  proof  of  the  ineffectiveness  of  such  control.  When  the 
continental  powers  ruled  in  Egypt,  the  country  was  not  only  a  dis- 
grace to  civilization  but  a  menace  to  the  peace  of  Europe.  On  this 
chaos  of  Eastern  barbarism  was  superimposed  a  layer  of  European 
officials  shamelessly  scrambling  and  intriguing  for  poHtical  influence. 
Not  until  the  administration  of  this  uncivilized  country  was  entrusted 
to  England  and  England  alone,  could  Lord  Cromer  bring  Egypt  to 
its  present  state  of  prosperity.  We  find,  then,  that  discipline  is  never 
effective  unless  directed  by  a  single  hand.  European  experiments 
along  this  fine  are  already  sufficiently  conclusive. 

7.  But  we  need  not  go  beyond  the  hmits  of  Morocco  to  gain 
experience  which  will  warn  us  against  a  continuation  df  the  present 
policy.  Her  control  by  a  concert  of  powers  has  been  entirely  futile. 
The  deplorable  conditions  of  the  country  have  continued  unimproved. 
France  at  every  step  has  had  to  face  the  jealousy  of  her  German 
neighbor,  who  has  encouraged  the  Moors  to  treat  the  French  with 


READING   LESSON    VIII  177 

contempt.  With  her  influence  thus  destroyed  among  the  natives, 
France,  the  only  country  which  can  secure  reform,  is  powerless.  The 
English  Earl  of  Meath  declares  that  as  a  result  of  the  senseless  jeal- 
ousies of  European  powers,  INIorocco  continues  to  be  a  country  seeth- 
ing ^^ith  anarch)^  and  brigandage.  The  poHcy  of  the  ^Moroccan  ports 
testifies  to  the  inadvisability  of  dividing  responsibility  when  deeds 
must  be  done.  Spain,  who  was  assigned  a  share  in  this  task,  has 
not  attempted  to  fulfill  her  obligations.  During  the  recent  attack 
of  the  natives  on  Casa  Blanca,  France  was  obliged  to  undertake  alone 
the  defense  of  foreign  interests  in  that  port.  Even  later  attempts 
at  cooperation  with  Spanish  forces  have  led  to  quarrels.  Thus  we 
see  that  the  Algeciras  Convention  is  a  mere  makeshift.  The  powers 
realize  this,  for  France  has  had  their  support  on  every  occasion  that 
circumstances  have  forced  her  to  overstep  the  limits  of  the  present 
arrangement.  No;  if  reforms  are  to  be  accomplished  in  Morocco, 
a  single  power  must  be  given  control.  Do  our  opponents  question 
this  conclusion?  Then  they  must  pr6ve  that  either  self-government 
by  the  Moors  or  international  control  is  practicable.  This  they  will 
find  it  difficult  to  do. 

8.  If,  therefore,  the  responsibility  for  public  safety  should  remain 
undivided,  we  must  now  determine  upon  what  nation  this  responsi- 
bihty  should  be  placed.  Since  England,  Spain,  and  Italy  have  will- 
ingly surrendered  their  claims,  France  would  have  but  one  competitor, 
Germany.  If  you  had  an  atlas  before  you  and  could  see  that  Morocco 
is  like  a  wedge  driven  in  between  the  two  solid  masses  of  the  French 
North  .\frican  Empire,  you  would  then  have  small  doubt  as  to  the 
rightful  claimant.  But  it  is  not  only  the  geographical  position  of 
this  country  which  gives  France  a  title  to  its  control.  When  we 
learn  that  the  commercial  interests  of  France  in  Morocco  are  five 
times  as  great  as  those  of  Germany;  when  we  remember  that  her 
loan  to  this  native  government  is  fourteen  times  as  large  as  that  of 
all  other  countries  combined,  it  is  then  that  we  can  realize  why  the 
common  sense  of  the  world  is  on  the  side  of  France.  A\'e  ain  under- 
stand why  the  Algeciras  Conference  recognized  her  rights,  giving  to 
France  the  predominant  share  in  policing  the  ports  and  three  shares 
in  the  Moroccan  National  Bank  to  one  share  each  for  all  the  other 
powers.  In  comparison  with  such  interests  as  these,  the  claim  of 
Germany  is  a  mere  pretense. 


178  ORAL   ENGLISH 

9.  Not  only  is  French  control  the  logical  solution  of  this  trouble- 
some problem,  but  it  is  of  vital  importance  to  France.  Upon  the 
possession  of  this  corner  depends  the  future  of  the  French  colonial 
empire  in  North  Africa.  Morocco,  the  refuge  for  all  the  lawless  and 
unruly  elements  of  the  desert  life,  borders  Algeria  for  five  hundred 
miles.  This  not  only  enables  marauding  Moorish  bands  continually  to 
raid  and  pillage  Algeria  at  pleasure,  but  it  affords  a  wide  gateway 
through  which  a  spirit  of  unrest  in  Morocco  may  at  any  time  enter 
Algeria  and  from  thence  spread  over  her  entire  empire.  When  we 
consider  how  contagious  is  the  spirit  of  revolt  among  a  Mohammedan 
population,  we  can  realize  the  danger  to  French  interests  in  North 
Africa.  Alarming  as  are  present  conditions,  imagine  some  European 
rival,  such  as  Germany,  permanently  encamped  in  the  midst  of 
French  colonies,  with  warlike  tribes  all  around  to  play  with.  At  any 
time  she  could  incite  this  entire  Mohammedan  Empire  to  insur- 
rection. France  would  be  obliged  to  garrison  Algeria  with  200,000 
armed  men  or  leave  her  colonies  defenseless.  Such  a  situation  would 
inevitably  lead  to  a  crisis  between  France  and  Germany.  If,  then, 
France  is  to  avoid  complications  with  her  German  rival,  if  she  is  to 
maintain  her  North  African  Empire,  Morocco  must  be  hers. 

10.  Our  opponents  may  be  forced  to  admit  the  value  of  the  French 
claims  in  Morocco,  but  they  will  plead  her  inability  to  accompHsh 
the  task.  They  will  resurrect  all  the  past  mistakes  of  France  in  an 
endeavor  to  prove  that  she  is  a  poor  colonizer.  In  refutation  of  this 
argument,  we  have  merely  to  point  to  the  results  of  French  influ- 
ence in  North  Africa.  She  has  chastized  the  Algerian  pirates.  With- 
in her  domains  slavery  and  the  slave  traffic  have  been  practically 
aboKshed.  With  a  whole  army  of  artisans,  agriculturists,  manu- 
facturers and  engineers,  she  has  invaded  this  dark  continent.  Bar- 
barism has  been  supplanted  by  law  and  order.  Desert  wastes  have 
been  converted  into  extensive  and  productive  plantations;  railroads 
have  been  pushed  out  in  every  direction  and  commerce  wonderfully 
developed.  The  whole  world  recognizes  the  great  transformation 
brought  about  in  Algeria  and  Tunis.  By  the  French  pohcy  in  these 
countries  we  can  forecast  the  future  of  the  Moorish  kingdom.  Narrow 
streets,  mud  walls,  and  sun-dried  bricks  will  give  way  to  broad  boule- 
vards and  modern  houses,  the  donkey  driver  will  be  superseded  by  the 
electric  train,  the  hand  flail  of  the  Arab  farmer  by  the  steam  thresher. 


READING    LESSON    VIII  179 

There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  administrative  capacity  of  the  French. 
They  have  constituted  themselves  the  civiUzing  power  of  the  whole 
region  from  Senegal  to  the  Barbar>^  coast,  a  territory  larger  than  that 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rockies.  The  best  title  of  France 
to  ^Morocco  is  the  history  of  her  whole  career  in  this  vast  region. 

11.  But  perhaps  our  opponents  will  tell  you  that  the  very  vast- 
ness  of  the  French  colonial  empire  is  its  weakness.  To  this  we  agree 
in  part,  but  we  reply  —  Let  her  give  up  her  more  remote  colonies,  if 
necessary .1  Let  her  concentrate  in  North  Africa  where  her  posses- 
sions can  be  defended  without  the  use  of  an  extensive  fleet.  New 
Caledonia  and  Indo-China  are  mere  baubles  in  importance,  as  com- 
pared with  Morocco.  This  policy  is  advocated  by  so  eminent  a 
Frenchman  as  Germain.  In  fact,  it  was  not  absent  from  the  mind 
of  Delcasse  when  he  said  in  1904:  "It  is  in  her  North  African  Empire 
that  France  is  assured  of  remaining  a  world  power.  The  time  may 
come  when  the  best  part  of  France  will  be  south  of  the  sea." 

12.  Let  us  try  to  grasp  the  situation  as  a  whole.  The  African 
continent  is  to  be  eventually  parcelled  out  among  the  European 
powers.  In  this  game  of  colony  grabbing,  in  this  art  of  rescuing  from 
barbarism,  France  has  by  no  means  acquitted  herself  badly.  Here 
in  the  northwest  corner  of  her  empire  lies  a  country  whose  potential 
commerce  is  estimated  at  two  hundred  million  a  year;  the  soil  of 
whose  plains,  so  favored  by  nature  but  neglected  by  man,  rivals  in 
fertiHty  that  of  our  prairie  states;  a  country,  the  development  of 
whose  resources  would  be  a  splendid  outlet  for  French  capital.  But 
our  opponents  will  tell  you  it  is  not  worth  the  cost.  Its  Atlas  Moun- 
tains abound  in  gold,  iron,  copper,  and  coal,  the  very  commodities 
with  which  France  is  poorly  provided  and  which  would  give  her 
manufacturing  supremacy.  The  passes  of  these  same  mountains 
are  the  keys  which  open  various  trade  routes  to  the  interior  of  the 
Sahara  and  which  are  now  closed  by  the  natives.  But  the  negative 
will  brush  all  these  facts  lightly  aside  and  ull  you  that  Morocco  is  a 
hornet's  nest.  Again  we  ask,  is  it  any  less  a  hornet's  nest  under 
international  control?     In  view  of  the  murder  of  Dr.  Manchamp  and 

'  It  may  be  of  interest  to  the  reader  to  know  that  on  Nov.  4,  191 1, 
Germany  gave  France  a  free  hand  in  Morocco  in  exchange  for  a  portion 
of  the  French  Congo.     {Independent,  71:  1007.) 


i8o  ORAL  ENGLISH 

the  attack  on  Casa  Blanca,  we  think  not.  Our  friends  on  the  nega- 
tive will  urge  that  France  lock  up  the  treasures  of  the  Moroccan 
mountains  and  the  wealth  of  her  arable  lands,  abandon  this  North 
African  Empire  which  has  been  in  the  process  of  formation  since  the 
days  of  the  great  Napoleon,  compromise  her  great  civilizing  task  of 
three-fourths  of  a  centur>%  and  cringe  before  the  German  Kaiser's 
threat  of  war.  But  when  my  colleague  has  shown  you  the  present 
inability  of  Germany  to  carry  out  this  threat,  I  believe  you  will  agree 
with  us  that  France,  at  the  expiration  cf  this  Algeciras  Convention 
in  191 1,  should  rise  to  her  opportunities,  recall  Delcasse,  whom  she 
so  ignobly  dismissed  at  the  behest  of  Germany,  and  thus  regain  her 
position  of  international  dignity. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

DEVELOPMENT    OF   A    SPEECH   FROM    A   BRIEF 

Introduction.  —  Although  we  have  already  studied  the 
rules  for  phrasing  (Chapter  X),  the  successful  application 
of  these  rules  to  argumentative  speeches  of  greater  length 
seems  to  call  for  further  instruction  and  illustration. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn  how  to  develop  a  speech 
from  a  brief  so  as  to  increase  the  impression  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis  which  we  have  already  attempted 
to  secure  in  the  brief. 

I.   Unity 

Unity  of  Each  Part.  —  In  the  first  place,  the  speaker 
should  see  to  it  that  each  part  of  the  speech  is  a  unit  in 
itself.  This  can  best  be  done  by  the  frequent  use  of  sum- 
maries. In  our  study  of  the  two-minute  speech,  we  found 
that  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  reference  to  the  main 
thought  both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the 
speech.  In  a  longer  speech,  we  should  summarize,  not 
only  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  whole  speech, 
but  we  should  summarize  each  main  division  and  each 
subdivision  as  we  take  it  up  and  as  we  leave  it. 

The  question  may  arise  in  the"  mind  of  the  student: 
"How  many  parts  shall  I  have  in  my  speech,  or  how  often 
shall  I  summarize?"  The  number  of  summaries  will 
depend  upon  the  importance  which  the  speaker  attaches 
to  each  subhead.     It  would  be  safe  to  say  that  a  summary 


I  minute 

I 

minute 

2         " 

I 

u 

2           " 

I 

u 

2           " 

4 

ii 

M 

I 

u 

182  ORAL  ENGLISH 

• 

sentence  should  occur  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end 
of  whatever  material  would  be  placed  in  a  paragraph  if 
the  speech  were  written. 

If  a  speaker  were  developing  an  eight-minute  speech 
from  a  brief,  he  might  divide  his  time  in  one  of  several 
ways.  Let  us  look  at  two  suggestions  for  a  division  of 
time. 

First  Second 

Introduction 

I  St  Division 

2d 

3d 
Conclusion 

In  each  of  these  cases  the  speaker,  if  he  were  writing  the 
speech,  might  form  each  division  into  one  or  more  para- 
graphs according  to  the  nature  of  the  material. 

Each  Unit  as  a  Part  of  the  Whole.  —  In  the  second  place, 
the  speaker  should  make  it  evident  that  each  smaller 
unit  is  a  definite  and  necessary  part  of  the  larger  unit. 
He  should  occasionally  throw  glances  back  over  the  whole 
field  and  in  this  way  reveal  the  bearing  of  each  part  upon 
his  main  proposition.  A  young  speaker  often  neglects  to 
point  out  that  each  bit  of  evidence  proves  a  subordinate 
argmnent  which,  in  turn,  supports  the  main  proposition. 
By  so  doing  he  places  upon  his  auditors  the  duty  of 
unifying  his  material. 

Necessity  of  Repetition.  —  All  experienced  speakers 
and  writers  have  realized  the  necessity  of  frequent  repe- 
titions. Even  the  most  intelhgent  people  are  rarely  im- 
pressed by  an  idea  which  is  stated  but  once,  and  this  is 
naturally  more  true  of  oral  than  of  written  expression. 
The  need  of  constant  reiteration  is  rather  humorously 


DEVELOPMENT  FROM  A  BRIEF  183 

illustrated  by  a  story  which  Josiah  Royce  of  Harvard 
University  tells  about  himself.  He  had  written  an  exten- 
sive work  on  philosophy  and  had  submitted  the  manuscript 
to  a  friend  for  criticism.  After  reading  it  the  friend  said, 
"The  only  fault  I  find  is  this:  in  connection  with  every 
step,  you  tell  us  that  you  intend  to  say  a  certain  thing; 
then  you  tell  us  what  it  is  that  you  intend  to  say;  then 
you  say  it;  then  you  tell  us  that  you  have  said  it;  and 
then  you  tell  us  what  it  is  that  you  have  said."  "Well," 
said  Professor  Royce,  good-humoredly,  "if,  in  the  end, 
you  know  what  I  did  intend  to  say,  I  am  satisfied," 

II.   Coherence 

Transitions.  —  We  have  already  learned  how  to  make 
sentences  hang  together  by  means  of  connective  words 
and  phrases  and  by  the  use  of  parallel  construction. 
(Chapter  X,  Division  II.)  In  the  longer  discourse,  the 
speaker  must  cause  the  paragraphs  to  hang  together  also. 
This  can  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  transition 
sentence,  a  sentence  which  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  a 
paragraph  and  which  performs  a  double  function.  It 
echoes  the  thought  of  the  preceding  paragraph  and  in- 
troduces the  central  thought  of  the  paragraph  to  which  it 
belongs.  Occasionally  a  transition  which  joins  paragraphs 
is  composed  of  more  than  one  sentence.  The  hanging 
together  of  main  divisions  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
transition  paragraphs.  A  transition  paragraph  makes 
reference  to  the  idea  which  is  most  vital  in  the  preceding 
division  and  gives  one  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  line  of 
thought  which  is  to  be  carried  011 1  in  the  following  division. 

Their  Value.  —  The  word  transition  means  "a  crossing 
over."     If  the  speaker  would  have  his  hearers  follow  him 


1 84  ORAL  ENGLISH 

without  effort,  he  should,  by  means  of  transitions,  build 
bridges,  as  it  were,  upon  which  they  may  cross  easily 
from  one  idea  to  the  next.  He  should  be  careful,  how- 
ever, to  see  that  the  transitions  are  natural  and  not 
forced.  This  will  not  be  difficult  if  the  ideas  are  so  ar- 
ranged and  phrased  that  each  leads  naturally  to  the  next, 
for  as  Cicero  says,  "Stones  well  hewn  unite  of  themselves 
and  without  the  aid  of  cement." 

III.    Emphasis 

Proportion.  —  The  emphatic  or  forceful  speaker  pays 
due  regard  to  the  question  of  proportion;  that  is,  he  de- 
votes a  larger  amount  of  time  and  care  to  those  ideas  which 
are  difficult  to  comprehend  and  touches  more  lightly  those 
which  are  easy  to  grasp.  The  young  speaker,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  tempted  to  elaborate  on  those  phases  of  his  sub- 
ject which  are  most  familiar  to  him  or  which  give  liim  an 
opportunity  for  eloquence. 

Variety.  —  Again,  the  emphatic  or  forceful  speaker 
seeks  variety.  No  matter  how  numerous  may  be  his 
transitions  and  his  summaries,  he  does  not  express  the 
same  idea  twice  in  the  same  words.  It  is  only  by  the  repe- 
tition of  the  same  idea  in  varied  form  that  the  speaker  can 
drive  home  his  thought  with  telling  effect.  Charles 
James  Fox,  the  great  English  orator,  laid  it  down  as  the 
great  principle  for  one  who  wished  to  leave  an  impression 
that  he  turn  the  same  idea  around  many  times  and  that 
he  hold  it  up  in  many  different  lights. 

The  emphatic  speaker  uses  every  possible  means  of 
securing  variety.  He  employs  the  various  kinds  of 
sentence  structure  (Chapter  X,  Division  III,  Variety  in 
Sentence  Form).     He  studies  to  use  the  law  of  climax  in 


DEVELOPMENT  FROM  A  BRIEF  185 

phrasing  his  summaries.  For  example,  the  last  sentence 
of  a  paragraph  is  the  strongest  in  that  paragraph;  the 
most  impressive  statement  of  the  thought  of  a  main 
division  is  left  until  the  end  of  that  main  division.  He 
opens  up  his  speech  in  a  more  or  less  formal  way,  develops 
it  with  increasing  strength,  and,  by  the  last  expression  of 
his  idea  in  the  conclusion,  leaves  a  sense  of  brightness 
and  color  and  power. 

Pictures.  —  The  emphatic  speaker  knows  how  to 
create  vivid  mental  pictures.  He  studies  to  do  this  even 
in  the  use  of  statistics.  He  knows  that  "round"  numbers 
are  more  effective  than  the  exact  figures;  so  he  says 
$1,000,000  instead  of  $1,010,729.17.  The  first  gives  a 
clearer  mental  picture  than  the  second  and  is,  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes,  quite  as  large.  If  he  wishes  to  compare 
two  amounts,  he  states  the  relation  between  them  rather 
than  naming  the  figures  themselves.  For  instance,  in 
the  debate  on  ^Morocco,  Mr.  Robinson  said,  ''The  loan  of 
France  is  fourteen  times  as  large  as  that  of  all  other 
countries  combined."  To  have  enunlerated  the  loans 
of  the  various  governments  would  not  only  have  wasted 
time,  but  would  also  have  made  a  less  vivid  impression. 

The  emphatic  speaker  uses  as  much  concrete  material 
as  possible;  it  may  be  in  the  form  of  words,  illustra- 
tions, or  stories.  He  may  use  purse  instead  of  wealth, 
gray  hair  instead  of  age,  etc.  (Review  Chapter  VI,  Divi- 
sion III,  last  paragraph,  for  other  concrete  words.)  The 
forceful  speaker  illustrates  everything.  Thomas  Went- 
worth  Higginson  says,  "Plan  for  one  good  fact  and 
one  good  illustration  under  each  head  of  your  subject." 
James  Russell  Lowell  says,  "A  metaphor  is  no  argu- 
ment, though  it  is  sometimes  the  gunpowder  to  drive  one 


1 86  ORAL  ENGLISH 

home  and  imbed  it  in  the  memory."  One  secret  of  the 
power  of  Christ's  discourses  is  suggested  in  the  question, 
"Whereunto  shall  the  kingdom  of  heaven  be  likened?" 

In  the  choice  of  illustrative  material,  the  emphatic 
speaker  is  governed  by  the  principle  that  what  is  familiar 
will  be  more  readily  pictured  in  the  mind  than  that  which 
is  unfamiliar.  An  illustration  drawn  from  life  at  sea  might 
serve  to  enforce  remarks  before  a  Sailor's  Union;  it  would 
have  much  less  illustrative  value  if  the  speaker  were  de- 
livering an  address  before  a  company  of  bankers.  Since 
a  speaker  is  frequently  called  upon  to  address  a  general 
audience,  he  will  do  well  to  draw  his  illustrations  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  common  experiences  of  mankind. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  some  of 
the  ways  whereby,  in  the  development  of  a  speech,  we 
may  increase  the  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  for  which 
we  provided  in  the  brief. 

The  work  of  composition  as  described  in  this  chapter 
may  be  likened  to  the  formation  of  a  mighty  river.  As 
the  stream  leaves  its  source  it  has  little  power,  but,  as  it 
proceeds  on  its  way,  each  canyon  and  valley  contributes 
its  tiny  streamlet,  until  at  last,  as  the  main  current 
nears  the  ocean,  it  becomes  a  splendid  torrent,  cutting 
deep  channels  in  the  soil  and  furnishing  almost  unlimited 
power  for  the  industrial  enterprises  of  man.  So,  in  the 
ideal  speech,  the  main  idea,  joined  by  each  contributing 
idea  and  guided  by  a  definite  purpose,  moves  forward 
with  ever  increasing  power  to  the  end. 


DEVELOPMENT  FROM  A  BRIEF  187 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Development  of  a  Speech  from  a  Brief 

Introduction. 

I.   Application  of  rules. 
II.    Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   Unity. 

A.  Unity  of  each  part. 

1.  Frequent  summaries. 

2.  How  to  determine  the  number. 

B.  Each  unit  as  a  part  of  the  whole. 

1.  Method. 

2.  Fault  of  the  beginner. 

C.  Necessity  of  repetition. 

1 .  Especially  in  oral  expression. 

2.  Anecdote  of  Professor  Royce. 
II.    Coherence. 

A.  Transitions. 

1.  Connective    words    and    parallel    construction. 

(Review.) 

2.  Transition  sentence. 

3.  Transition  paragraph. 

B.  Their  value. 

1.  Meaning. 

2.  Natural.  —  Cicero. 
III.   Emphasis. 

A.  Proportion. 

1.  Meaning. 

2.  Fault  of  the  beginner. 

B.  Variety. 

1.  Repetition  of  the  same  idea  in  different  words.  — ■ 

Fox. 

2.  Sentence  structure.     (Review.) 

3.  Climax. 

(a)    Paragraph. 
(Jb)    Division, 
(c)    Speech. 


i88  ORAL  ENGLISH 

IIL    C.    Pictures. 

1.  Statistics. 

(a)  Round  numbers. 

(b)  Comparisons.  —  Loans. 

2.  Concrete  material. 

(a)  Words.     (Review.) 

(b)  Illustrations. 

(i)    Higginson. 

(2)  Lowell. 

(3)  Christ. 

(c)  Choice  of  material. 

(i)    Famiharity. 

a.  Life  at  sea. 

b.  Common  experiences. 
Conclusion. 

I.    Summary. 

II.    Formation  of  a  river  compared  with  the  composition  of  a 
speech. 

Exercise  I.  —  i.  Read  the  chapter  as  far  as  Division  II  and  be 
able  to  recite  from  the  topical  outline. 

2.  Compare  the  speech  given  in  Reading  Lesson  VIII  with  the 
brief  which  follows.  Enclose  in  a  brace  those  portions  of  the  brief 
which  form  the  basis  of  each  paragraph  and  label  them  with  the 
corresponding  paragraph  numbers.  This  exercise  will  indicate  the 
way  in  which  a  speech  grows  out  of  a  brief. 

3.  Be  able  to  answer  the  following  questions  with  reference  to 
the  speech  on  Morocco: 

a.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  first  paragraph? 

b.  Does  the  speaker  refer  to  the  main  issue?     Would  you 

prefer  to  have  him  do  so? 

c.  Would  he  have  gained  anything  by  an  advance  sum- 

mary of  that  which  he  and  his  colleague  wished  to 
prove? 

d.  In  what  paragraphs  is  the  central  thought  expressed 

both  at  the  opening  and  the  close  of  the  paragraph? 

e.  What  instance  is  there  of  a  summary  of  a  main  division? 


develop:mext  from  a  brief  189 

Brief  for  Speech 

Resolved,  That  France  should  adopt  the  policy  of  M.  Delcasse  in 
regard  to  Morocco  at  the  expiration  of  the  Algeciras  Convention. 

Introduction. 

I.   The  question  is  of  interest  to  us  as  well  as  to  foreigners. 
II.   Definition  and  history. 

A.  IMorocco  is  a  country  in  North  Africa  which  has  been 

claimed  by  several  powers. 

B.  M.  Delcasse  desired  to  secure  Morocco  for  France. 

I.   He  persuaded  England,  Spain,  and  Italy  to  with- 
draw their  claims. 

C.  The  jealousy  of  Germany  brought  about  a  convention 

of  all  the  European  powers  at  Algeciras  in  iqo6. 

D.  The  convention  decided  that  Morocco  should  be  placed 

under  international  control  until  igii. 

E.  When    this   agreement   expires,    it    must    be   decided 

whether    Morocco    shall    be    given    independence, 
whether   international   control   shall  be  continued, 
or  whether   the   control   shall   be   given   into    the 
hands  of  a  single  power. 
III.   Main  issue  • —  Is  the  danger  of  war  with  Germany  sufficient 
to  deter  France  from  pressing  her  logical  claims?     (The 
question  of  the  possibility  of  a  European  war  was  handled 
by  the  second  affirmative  speaker.) 
Affirmative  Argument. 

I.    Alorocco  should  be  given  to  France,  for 

.1.    Morocco  should  be  governed  by  a  single  power,  for 

1.  It  is  incapable  of  self-government. 

2.  A  continuation   of  international  control  is  not 

advisable,  for 

(a)    This  is  proved  by  the  history  of  Mace- 
donia and  Egypt . 
(/;)    The  policy  has  failed  in  Morocco  itself. 
II.    That  one  power  should  be  I'"rance  and  not  Germany,  for 
A .    France  is  the  logical  candidate  for  the  position,  for 

1.  It  would  round  out  her  empire. 

2.  Her  commercial  interests  are  larger  than  those 

of  any  other  country. 


I90  ORAL  ENGLISH 

B.  French  control  is  of  vital  importance  to  her,  for 

I.   German  control  of  Morocco  would  endanger  the 
interests  of  France  in  her  surrounding  empire. 

C.  The  claim  that  France  is  unequal  to  the  task  is  in- 

valid, for 

1.  She  has  proved  herself  to  be  a  civilizing  power  in 

Africa. 

2.  If  necessary,  it  would  be  better  for  her  to  give  up 

her   more  distant    colonies    in    order    to    hold 
Morocco. 
Conclusion. 

I.   Morocco  should  be  governed  by  a  single  power. 
II.   That  power  should  be  France. 

Exercise  II.  —  Complete  the  reading  of  the  chapter  and  be  able 
to  recite  from  the  topical  outhne.  Incorporate  in  your  recitation 
the  subject  matter  of  any  review  which  is  suggested. 

Exercise  III.  —  i.   UnderHne  the  connective  words  used  in  para- 
graph 6  of  Reading  Lesson  VIII. 
2.    Check  the  transition  sentences. 
Write  the  answers  to  the  following  questions: 

1.  Show  that  the  speaker  has  gained  emphasis  through  proportion. 

2.  Does  the  wording  of  each  transition  sentence  vary  from  other 
expressions  of  the  same  idea? 

3.  In  what  paragraphs  is  the  last  sentence  a  stronger  statement 
of  the  paragraph-thought  than  the  first  sentence?  Is  there  a  variety 
of  sentence  structure?  To  prove  your  answer,  select  one  question 
and  one  imperative  sentence,  one  short  and  one  long  sentence,  one 
loose  and  one  periodic  sentence. 

4.  Do  you  find  a  balanced  sentence? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  concrete  or  special  terms  which  have  been  used. 
Opposite  each  write  an  abstract  or  general  term  which  might  have 
been  used  but  with  less  effectiveness. 

6.  Find  one  example  of  a  metaphor  or  simile. 

7.  Show  that  the  conclusion  summarizes  the  points  of  the  speech 
but  deals  with  them  in  a  more  impressive  way  than  in  the  body  of 
the  speech. 


DEVELOPMENT  FROM  A  BRIEF  191 

Exercise  IV.  —  Re\dse,  if  necessarj',  the  brief  which  you  prepared 
in  connection  with  Chapter  XV'I.  Using  that  portion  of  it  which  has 
been  assigned  to  you  as  a  basis,  make  a  word  outline  and  prepare  a 
six-minute  speech.  IMake  use  as  far  as  possible  of  the  suggestions 
given  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

THE   HANDLING   OF   REFUTATION 

Introduction.  —  Much  has  been  learned  in  Chapter  XV, 
entitled  "Proof  and  Its  Tests,"  wliich  will  enable  the 
debater  to  be  skillful  in  refutation.  He  must  know, 
however,  not  only  how  to  meet  the  facts  and  reasoning 
processes  of  his  opponents,  but  also  how  to  prepare  and 
handle  his  refutation  to  the  best  advantage. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn  (i)  how  to  choose  that 
which  should  be  refuted,  (2)  how  to  place  refutation  both 
in  the  principal  speech  and  in  the  separate  refutation 
speech,  and  (3)  how  to  phrase  it. 

I.   How  TO  Choose  Points 

Success  in  refutation  depends  largely  upon  the  debater's 
power  to  choose  wisely  that  which  he  wishes  to  refute. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  try  to  touch  upon  everything  to  which 
it  is  possible  to  give  the  semblance  of  an  answer.  An  old 
couplet  illustrates  this  point: 

"When  one's  proofs  are  aptly  chosen, 
Four  are  as  vaHd  as  a  dozen." 

A  debater  who  would  choose  ''aptly"  must  analyze 
constantly  and  attack  or  offset  those  arguments  which  he 
thinks  have  made  the  most  favorable  impression  upon  the 
audience.  This  plan  may  be  compared  to  the  efforts  of 
a  football  team  to  "down"  the  man  with  the  ball. 


THE  HANDLING  OF  REFUTATION  193 

II.   How  TO  Place  Refutation 

The  effectiveness  of  refutation  depends  to  a  consider- 
able extent  upon  the  position  in  which  it  is  placed. 

In  the  Principal  Argument.  —  We  shall  first  consider 
that  which  should  occur  within  the  allotted  time  for  the 
principal  argument  of  each  debater.  Each  speaker  should 
plan  to  reserve  at  least  one-fourth  of  his  time  for  emer- 
gencies. Certain  kinds  of  refutation  should  be  placed  at 
the  first  of  the  speech.  For  example,  each  speaker,  except 
the  first  on  each  side,  should  summarize  the  work  of  his 
preceding  colleague  (or  colleagues)  and,  if  possible,  com- 
pare it  with  the  work  of  his  opponents;  that  is,  he  should 
state,  from  his  own  point  of  view,  the  progress  which  the 
debate  has  made  on  both  sides. 

Again,  if  there  is  any  point  which,  if  not  answered,  would 
interfere  with  the  progress  of  the  debate,  it  should  be 
answered  immediately.  Should  the  point  be  one  which  a 
colleague  has  planned  to  answer  later  in  connection  with 
his  constructive  argument,  the  debater  need  not  refute 
the  argument  but  should  mention  this  fact,  else  the 
audience  may  think  that  the  team  is  unable  to  answer  it. 

In  the  majority  of  instances,  however,  the  best  time 
to  refute  an  objection  is  not  at  the  first  of  the  speech  but 
in  connection  with  that  phase  of  the  question  to  which 
the  objection  refers.  This  plan  will  detract  less  from  the 
unity  of  the  speech  and  will  ;il  the  same  time  add  to 
the  force  of  the  refutation.  If  the  debater  has  prepared 
his  discussion  orally  with  the  help  of  a  word  outline,  it 
will  not  be  difTicull  for  him  to  insert  here  and  there 
ideas  which  have  been  suggested  by  the  arguments  of  his 
oi)ponents. 


194  ORAL  ENGLISH 

In  the  Separate  Refutation  Speech.  —  We  shall  next 
consider  the  separate,  or  closing  refutation  speech.  (The 
privilege  of  a  second  speech  is  always  granted  to  one 
affirmative  speaker  and  sometimes  to  all  speakers.)  Each 
speaker  should  come  upon  the  platform  with  a  list  of  points 
which  may  require  refutation  but  which  have  not  been 
met  either  by  his  own  or  by  his  colleague's  prepared 
speeches.  As  these  points  appear  in  the  speeches  of  his 
opponents,  he  should  check  them  on  his  list. 

During  the  progress  of  the  debate,  he  should  select  those 
which  have  not  been  sufficiently  answered  by  his  colleagues 
and  arrange  them  in  the  form  of  a  word  outline.  In  so 
doing,  he  should  observe  the  rules  for  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis.  Considerations  of  this  kind  will  not  re- 
quire much  time  and  will  prevent  the  scrappy  effect 
which  is  usually  characteristic  of  the  refutation  speech  of 
an  immature  debater. 

He  should  reserve  at  least  one  minute  at  the  last  of  his 
speech  to  summarize  his  own  and  his  opponent's  argu- 
ments, and  to  drive  home  his  own  main  contention  as 
briefly  and  pungently  as  possible. 

III.   How  TO  Phrase  Refutation 

The  phrasing  as  well  as  the  choice  and  placing  of  refu- 
tation must  be  considered. 

Before  the  Debate.  —  If  a  debater  has  made  a  clash 
of  opinion,  thereby  studying  his  opponent's  case  as  well 
as  his  own,  he  will  be  able  to  do  much  of  his  phrasing 
before  com.ing  to  the  platform.  Although  he  cannot 
anticipate  the  exact  wording  in  which  the  ideas  will  be 
presented,  he  can  know  the  subject  matter  and  can  frame 
a  concise  answer  for  each  point. 


THE  HANDLING  OF  REFUTATION  195 

During  the  Debate.  —  As  a  debater  listens  to  the  argu- 
ments of  his  opponents,  he  should  note  the  language  in 
which  they  are  couched,  and  should  seek,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, to  repeat  these  words  in  his  refutation.  Not  only- 
does  the  reply  gain  force  by  being  coupled  with  the  exact 
statement  which  it  aims  to  refute,  but  the  whole  speech 
is  given  an  atmosphere  of  spontaneity. 

Although  the  debater  can  do  much  more  in  preparation 
for  refutation  than  is  usually  supposed,  he  must  not  under 
any  circumstances  during  the  debate  allow  his  brain  to 
relax  its  vigilance,  but  must  constantly  be  choosing, 
arranging,  and  phrasing. 

He  should  study  to  vary  the  phrases  with  which  he 
opens  each  point  in  refutation.  An  inexperienced  debater 
will  repeat  many  times,  ''Our  opponents  say,"  whereas 
there  are  numerous  other  suitable  phrases,  such  as,  "It 
has  been  claimed,"  "The  advocates  of  this  plan  con- 
tend," "Our  friends  on  the  affirmative  would  have  you 
believe." 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  that 
success  in  refutation  depends  (i)  on  a  wise  choice  of  points 
to  be  refuted,  (2)  on  effective  placing,  and  (3)  on  careful 
phrasing. 

TOPICAL    OUTLINE 

The  Handling  of  Refutation 

Introduction. 

I.   Relation  to  Chapter  XV. 
II.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   How  to  choose  points. 

A.  A  few  points.  —  Couplet. 

B.  Favorable  impression.  —  Football. 


196  ORAL  ENGLISH 

II.   How  to  place  refutation. 

A.  In  the  principal  speech. 

1.  Time. 

2.  At  the  first. 

(a)  Comparison. 

(b)  Points  which  interfere. 

3.  Best  place. 

(a)    Reasons. 

(h)    Oral  preparation. 

B.  In  the  separate  refutation  speech.  —  Privilege. 

1.  Prepared  list. 

2.  Arrangement.  - —  Value. 

3.  Summary. 
III.    How  to  phrase  refutation. 

A.  Before  the  debate. 

1.  Clash  of  opinion. 

2.  Concise  answer. 

B.  During  the  debate. 

1.  Repetition  of  exact  words.  —  Reasons. 

2.  Vigilance. 

3.  Variety. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

TEAMWORK 

Introduction.  —  To  a  judge,  good  teamwork  means 
merely  that  the  arguments  of  all  the  speakers  on  one  side 
are  welded  together;  in  other  words,  that  one  speaker 
does  not  encroach  upon  the  territory  of  the  other  and 
that  each  reinforces  the  other  by  pointing  out  the  relation 
between  the  part  developed  by  himself  and  that  developed 
by  his  colleague. 

To  the  debater,  however,  teamwork  signifies  more  than 
this.  It  means  the  cooperative  efforts  of  the  team  mem- 
bers during  the  whole  period  of  preparation.  ]\Iuch  of 
the  pleasure  of  debating  work  is  to  be  found  in  its  social 
character.  Each  can  help  his  fellows  to  success  and  each 
is  more  or  less  dependent  upon  his  fellows  for  success. 
The  double  team  system  for  interscholastic  debates  is 
an  ideal  arrangement  and  furnishes  many  opportunities 
for  teamwork.  According  to  this  system,  each  school  is 
represented  by  an  affirmative  team  which  debates  at  the 
home  school  and  a  negative  team  which  visits  the  rival 
school. 

This  chapter  will  describe  the  manner  in  which  the 
affirmative  and  negative  teams  of  each  school  may  work 
together  and  each  member  contribute  to  the  success  of  all. 
Where  it  is  not  possible  to  use  the  double  team  system,  a 
team  of  alternates  may  be  chosen  to  act  as  a  practice 


198  ORAL  ENGLISH 

team.  Many  of  the  suggestions  made  in  this  division  will 
be  helpful  to  those  who  engage  only  in  class  or  interclass 
debates,  although  the  teamwork  for  debates  of  this  kind 
will  of  necessity  be  more  limited. 

I.    Opportunities  for  Teamwork 

Opportunities  for  teamwork  occur  in  every  division  of 
the  work. 

Gathering  of  Material.  —  At  a  meeting  held  immedi- 
ately after  the  teams  are  chosen,  plans  should  be  made  for 
future  meetings.  The  members  should  choose  a  presiding 
officer  from  among  their  number  and  draw  up  a  schedule 
which  shall  be  satisfactory  to  all,  stating  the  time  and 
purpose  of  future  meetings.  If  the  members  have  some 
general  knowledge  of  the  question,  they  should  agree  upon 
a  list  of  topics  under  which  to  classify  their  notes.  Unless 
they  are  already  provided  with  an  extended  list  of  refer- 
ences, they  should  divide  up  the  work  of  making  one. 
Each  should  be  assigned  the  task  of  copying  references 
from  certain  years  of  the  Reader^s  Guide.  These  refer- 
ences, when  copied,  can  be  so  re-distributed  that  each 
member  will  have  both  recent  and  earlier  references. 
One  member  may  collect  and  distribute  the  books  on  the 
subject,  while  another  may  write  for  government  or  other 
publications. 

Conferences  to  discuss  notes  should  be  held  at  intervals 
of  several  days  throughout  the  period  allotted  to  reading. 
At  each  meeting,  the  leader  should  ask  for  all  information 
which  has  been  gathered  on  a  certain  topic.  After  that 
has  been  given  and  its  bearings  discussed,  he  should  call 
for  the  next  topic,  and  so  on.  If  the  proposition  is  one 
upon  which  very  little  has  been  written,  each  member  may 


TEAMWORK  199 

be  able  to  read  everything  relating  to  it,  but  if  the  material 
is  extensive,  it  is  better  to  place  some  reliance  upon  the 
other  members  and  so  cover  the  ground.  Each  member 
may  star  valuable  references  and  pass  them  on.  Whether 
or  not  each  does  all  of  the  reading,  an  occasional  conference 
to  discuss  the  points  gathered  will  be  found  extremely  help- 
ful. If  the  discussions  are  well  managed,  the  debater  will 
read  to  much  more  purpose  after  a  meeting  than  before, 
for  he  will  realize  more  clearly  which  matters  are  essential 
to  the  issue  and  which  are  not. 

The  Making  of  a  Brief.  —  Before  commencing  the  brief, 
the  afhrmative  speakers  should  give  to  the  negative  speak- 
ers any  negative  material  which  they  may  have  gathered, 
and  vice  versa.  The  teams  should  then  work  separately 
until  the  brief  is  completed.  Each  member  of  the  team 
should  make  a  brief  for  the  whole  side,  seeking  to  include 
within  it  every  item  of  real  worth  with  its  accompanying 
reference.  The  members  of  the  team  may  then  meet, 
compare  results,  and  incorporate  the  best  in  a  brief  which 
will  be  as  nearly  as  possible  satisfactory  to  all. 

This  method  brings  better  results  than  other  methods. 
If  the  members  of  the  team  try  to  work  together  in  the 
arrangement  of  material  before  their  ideas  have  been  clari- 
fied, much  time  is  wasted.  Nor  can  the  team  determine 
offhand  upon  a  partition  so  that  each  can  work  up  a  por- 
tion of  the  brief,  for  one  cannot  be  sure  that  he  has 
made  the  best  choice  of  main  propositions  until  he  has 
studied  and  groui)cd  his  minor  i)ropositions,  consider- 
ing carefully  their  relations  to  each  other.  Again,  it  is 
only  by  this  method  that  each  speaker  can  come  to 
know  thoroughly  the  work  of  his  colleague. 

Oral  Practice.  —  When  the  brief  has  been  completed, 


200  ORAL  ENGLISH 

the  members  of  the  team  should  exchange  notes,  so  that 
each  will  have  those  which  bear  upon  his  division  of  the 
question.  Each  member  should  then  prepare  for  a  prac- 
tice debate  by  making  a  word  outhne  based  upon  his 
brief  and  by  extemporizing  from  it  several  times. 

The  practice  debates  should  be  conducted,  in  regard  to 
both  time  limits  and  refutation,  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
the  same  way  as  the  final  public  debate.  It  is  advisable 
to  have  one  practice  debate  in  which  the  colleagues  shall 
change  places.  This  scheme  has  several  advantages: 
it  gives  an  opportunity  for  each  debater  to  aid  his  col- 
league by  making  suggestions  as  to  the  better  handling 
of  his  material;  it  affords  a  chance  for  valuable  practice 
in  extemporizing;  and  it  makes  each  speaker  more  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  material  handled  by  his  colleague. 
During  the  debate,  each  member  should  make  a  note  of 
criticisms  on  all  other  speakers  and,  after  the  debate  is 
over,  the  leader  should  ask  for  criticisms  on  each  speaker 
in  turn. 

Preparation  for  Refutation.  —  At  least  two  days  before 
the  public  debate  the  members  of  each  team  should  meet 
and  make  a  combined  list  of  points  which  are  hkely  to 
arise  for  refutation.  To  these  points  each  member  should 
write  concise  answers.  At  a  second  meeting  these  answers 
should  be  compared  and  the  best  chosen  and  copied. 

II.   Importance  of  Teamwork 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  teamwork  is  one  of 
the  fine  points  of  the  game  and  that  the  success  of  an 
interscholastic  debate  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
spirit  of  mutual  helpfulness.  During  the  period  of  prep- 
aration  the  periods  assigned  for  team-meeting  must  be 


TEAMWORK  201 

considered  of  first  importance  by  the  debaters;  other 
calls  upon  their  time  must  be  temporarily  set  aside.  The 
best  way  to  secure  this  cooperation  is  to  draw  up  at  the 
outset  a  schedule  which  shall  be  satisfactory  to  all  and  to 
which  each  shall  promise  his  allegiance.  The  following 
is  an  example  of  a  schedule  drawn  up  by  a  team  which 
had  six  weeks  for  preparation: 

Mar.  17,  Monday.  Team  chosen. 

"  18,  Tuesday.  Topics  chosen  and  references  assigned. 

"  25,  Tuesday.  Reading  Conference. 

Apr.     I,  Tuesday.  Reading  Conference. 

"       5,  Saturday.  Visit  to  University  Library. 

"       8,  Tuesday.  Reading  Conference. 

"  II,  Friday.  Brief  completed. 

"  15,  Tuesday.  First  Practice  Debate. 

"  18,  Friday.  Second  Practice  Debate. 

"  21,  Monday.  Third  Practice  Debate. 

"  23,  Wednesday.  Speeches  written  and  read. 

"  24,  Thursday.  List  of  points  in  refutation. 

"  25,  Friday.  List  of  answers. 

"  26,  Saturday.  Final  Public  Contest. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
that  opportunities  for  cooperation,  or  teamwork,  occur  in 
every  part  of  the  work;  and  (2)  that  the  success  of  a 
debate  depends  very  largely  upon  the  spirit  of  mutual 
helpfulness. 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Teamwork 
hitrodurtlon. 

\.    What  teamwork  means  to  a  judge. 
II.   What  teamwork  means  to  a  debater. 
A.  Double-team  system. 


202  ORAL  ENGLISH 

III.    Purpose  of  the  chapter. 

A .  Alternates. 

B.  Class  and  interclass  debates. 
Body. 

I.   Opportunities  for  teamwork. 

A.  Gathering  of  material. 

1.  First  meeting. 

(o)    Presiding  officer  and  schedule. 

(b)  List  of  topics. 

(c)  References. 

(i)    Readers'  Guide.  —  Re-distributed. 

(2)  Books. 

(3)  Publications. 

2.  Later  conferences. 

(a)  Discussion  by  topics. 

(b)  How  to  cover  a  large  field. 
(c) .  Value  of  the  conferences. 

B.  The  making  of  a  brief. 

1.  Exchange  of  notes. 

2.  Separate  before  combined  work. 

(a)   Reasons. 

(i)    Time. 

(2)  Impossibility  of  offhand  partition. 

(3)  Work  of  colleague. 

C.  Oral  practice. 

1.  Exchange  of  notes. 

2.  Preparation  for  practice  debate. 

3.  Conduct  of  debate. 

(a)   Time  limits  and  refutation. 
(6)    Exchange  of  places  with  colleague, 
(i)    Advantages. 

a.  Suggestions. 

b.  Practice. 

c.  Familiarity. 

(c)  Criticisms. 

D.  Preparation  for  refutation. 

1.  Combined  list  of  points. 

2.  Answers  compared. 


TEAMWORK  203 

II.   Importance  of  teamwork. 

A.  Secret  of  success. 

B.  Necessary  sacrifices. 

C.  Schedule. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 


CHAPTER   XX 

ATTITUDE 

Introduction.  —  Since  debating  is  a  game,  the  debater 
should  maintain  throughout  an  attitude  of  fair  play  and 
good  sportsmanship. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  consider  the  debater's  attitude 
(i)  toward  his  subject,  (2)  toward  his  opponents,  and 
(3)  toward  the  result. 

I.   Attitude  Toward  the  Subject 

Two  Sides.  —  The  debater  should  remember  that  there 
are  two  sides  to  every  debatable  question.  Because  of 
this,  it  is  unreasonable  to  try  to  deny  or  refute  everything; 
a  speaker  will  be  much  more  persuasive  if  he  will  admit 
that  there  is  truth  on  the  other  side;  in  fact  he  should  go 
with  his  opponents  as  far  as  possible.  This  habit  is  said 
to  have  been,  in  large  measure,  the  cause  of  Lincoln's 
persuasiveness.  The  debater  should  remember  that  there 
are  those  in  the  audience,  and  it  may  be  the  Judges,  who 
agree  with  his  opponents.  The  game  does  not  consist  in 
fighting  one's  opponents  but  in  convincing  one's  hearers. 
It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  find  some  common  point  of 
view  and  to  work  from  that  toward  conviction. 

Misrepresentation.  —  A  good  debater  will  never  mis- 
represent the  facts.  If  debaters  differ  on  a  definition  of 
the  question,  the  judges  should  and  probably  will  discount 
the  side  which  attempts  to  uphold  a  far-fetched  technical 


ATTITUDE  205 

meaning.  Dr.  R.  M.  Alden  says  in  his  Art  of  Debate, 
"Those  lawyers  appear  to  be  most  largely  successful  who 
are  not  given  to  fighting  on  the  technicahties,  but  who  give 
the  impression  that  the  fundamental  merits  of  the  case 
are  their  chiei  concern." 

Wit.  —  Again,  the  debater  should  guard  hipiself  against 
flippancy.  Witty  and  smart  replies,  unless  accompanied 
by  sound  logic,  are  very  likely  to  be  rated  by  judges  as 
an  attempt  to  cover  superficial  thinking. 

II.   Attitude  Toward  Opponents 

A  debater  should  be  courteous  toward  his  opponents 
under  all  circumstances,  not  only  because  courtesy  is  a 
virtue  but  because  it  is  a  matter  of  self-interest.  To 
lower  one's  opponent  does  not  raise  oneself  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  public.  Even  if  the  language  of  one's  opponent 
is  offensive,  it  will  not  pay  to  respond  to  personalities. 
Dignity  and  self-control  are  always  winning  quaUties. 

III.   Attitude  Toward  the  Result 

If  He  Loses.  ^  If  a  debater  loses  the  decision  he  should 
not  blame  the  judges,  for  they  have  probably  done  their 
best  to  judge  impartially.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  be  wholly  uninfluenced  by  one's  own 
knowledge  and  convictions  on  a  subject.  Again,  all 
human  beings  are  almost  unconsciously  attracted  or  re- 
pelled by  certain  personalities.  These  facts  have  become 
apparent  in  the  discussions  of  judges  at  the  close  of  a 
"tryout."  Teachers  with  the  kindest  intentions  and  with 
a  sincere  desire  to  choose  the  best  team  to  rc])rcsenl  the 
school  have  found  themselves  with  widely  divergent  no- 
tions as  to  the  merit  of  the  work  which  has  been  presented. 


2o6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

In  addition  to  this,  the  presentations  are  often  of  such 
equal  merit  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  between  them. 
There  are  a  great  many  things  to  be  considered  in  a  very 
short  space  of  time.  Delivery  and  diction  must  be  given 
due  attention,  but  it  is  the  argument  which  is  most  diffi- 
cult to  pass  upon  with  "righteous  judgment."  The  judge 
must  not  only  decide  upon  the  relative  value  of  the  evi- 
dence and  reasoning  as  it  is  brought  forth,  but  he  must 
also,  if  possible,  compare  what  has  been  brought  forward 
with  what  might  have  been  brought  forward. 

Furthermore,  judges  frequently  serve  at  great  sacrifice 
of  time  and  convenience,  and  they  should  receive  the 
gratitude  of  losers  as  well  as  of  winners. 

If  He  Wins.  —  If  the  debater  wins  the  decision,  he  should 
not  think  that  he  has  become  a  finished  speaker,  for  his 
next  opponent  may  bring  him  to  defeat.  The  following 
extract  from  a  poem  entitled  "  Failure,"  by  Edmund  Vance 
Cooke,  is  well  worth  memorizing: 

"If  you  never  have  failed,  it's  an  even  guess 
You  never  have  won  a  high  success. 
If  you  never  have  sent  your  bullet  wide, 
You  never  have  put  a  mark  inside. 
If  you  never  have  more  than  met  your  match, 
I  guess  you  never  have  toed  the  scratch." 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  that  the 
debater  should  be  (i)  honest  toward  his  subject,  (2)  cour- 
teous toward  his  opponents,  and  (3)  neither  discouraged 
nor  too  much  elated  over  the  result. 


ATTITUDE  207 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Attitude 
Introduction. 

I.   Sportsmanship. 
II.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   Attitude  toward  the  subject. 

A.  Two  sides. 

I .  Persuasiveness. 
{a)  Lincohi. 
{b)    Judges. 

(c)    What   the  game  consists  of.  —  Common 
point 

B.  Misrepresentation. 

I .   Technicalities.  —  Dr.  Alden. 

C.  Wit. 

II.   Attitude  toward  opponents. 

A.   A  matter  of  self-interest. 
III.   Attitude  toward  the  result. 

A.  If  he  loses. 

1.  Personal  difficulties  of  judges. 

{a)   Their  own  knowledge. 
(6)    Personalities, 
(c)    "Tryouts." 

2.  Many  things  to  be  considered. 

3.  Sacrifices. 

B.  If  he  wins.  —  Cooke. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outUne. 

Exercise  II.  —  Revise  the  six-minute  speech  which  you  prepared 
in  connection  with  Chapter  X\  I.  WorkiiiK  with  your  colleague,  be 
prepared  to  debate  the  same  sul)jcct.  Use  as  many  as  possible  of 
the  suggestions  made  in  Chapters  X\'III,  XIX,  and  XX. 

As  the  si)ceches  are  given  the  members  of  the  class  should  act  as 
judges,  keeping  a  tally  of  the  points.     In  the  decision  more  weight 


2o8  ORAL  ENGLISH 

should  be  given  to  argument  than  to  diction  and  delivery.  Each 
speaker  should  be  allowed  six  minutes  for  his  main  speech  and  two 
minutes  for  a  separate  refutation  speech. 

Exercise  III.  —  i.   How  to  Get  Unity  in  an  Argument  of  Length. 

2.  How  to  Get  Coherence  in  an  Argument  of  Length, 

3.  How  to  Get  Emphasis  in  an  Argument  of  Length. 

4.  Choice  of  Refutation. 

5.  Placing  of  Refutation. 

6.  Phrasing  of  Refutation. 

7.  Teamwork  in  Gathering  Material. 

8.  Teamwork  in  Making  a  Brief. 

9.  Teamwork  in  Oral  Practice. 
10.  Attitude  of  a  Debater. 


READING    LESSON    IX  209 

READING  LESSON   IX 
Introductions  and  Conclusions 

1 .  From  a  eulogy  delivered  by  John  Hay  at  the  official  exercises 
commemorative  of  President  McKinley: 

"For  the  third  time  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  are  assem- 
bled to  commemorate  the  life  and  death  of  a  President  slain  by  the 
hand  of  an  assassin.  The  attention  of  the  future  historian  will  be 
attracted  to  the  features  which  reappear  with  startling  sameness  in 
all  three  of  these  awful  crimes:  the  uselessness,  the  utter  lack  of  con- 
sequence of  the  act;  the  obscurity,  the  insignificance  of  the  criminal; 
the  blamelessness  —  so  far  as  in  our  sphere  of  existence  the  best  of 
men  may  be  held  blameless  —  of  the  victim.  Not  one  of  our  mur- 
dered Presidents  had  an  enemy  in  the  world;  they  were  all  men  of 
democratic  instincts  who  could  never  have  offended  the  most  jealous 
advocates  of  equality;  they  were  of  kindly  and  generous  nature,  to 
whom  wrong  or  injustice  was  impossible;  of  moderate  fortune,  whose 
slender  means  nobody  could  env>'.  They  were  men  of  austere  virtue, 
of  tender  heart,  of  eminent  abilities,  which  they  had  devoted  with 
single  minds  to  the  good  of  the  Republic.  If  ever  men  walked  before 
God  and  men  without  blame,  it  was  these  three  rulers  of  our  people." 

2.  From  The  New  South  by  Ilcnry  W.  Grady: 

There  was  a  South  of  slavery  and  secession  —  that  South  is  dead. 
There  is  a  South  of  union  and  freedom  —  that  South,  thank  God,  is 
living,  breathing,  growing  every  hour.'  These  words,  delivered  from 
the  immortal  lips  of  Benjamin  11.  J I  ill,  at  Tammany  Hall,  in  1866, 
true  then,  and  truer  now,  I  shall  make  my  text  to-night." 

3.  From  The  Man  with  the  Muck-rake,  by  Theodore  Roosevelt: 

"In  Bunyan's  Pilf^rim's  Progress  you  may  recall  the  descriiilion  of 
the  Man  with  the  Muck-rake,  the  man  who  could  look  no  way  but 
downward,  with  the  muck-rake  in  his  hand;  who  was  offered  a  celes- 
tial crown  for  his  muck-rake;  but  who  would  neither  look  up  nor 
regard  the  crown  he  was  offered,  but  continued  to  rake  to  himself 
the  filth  of  the  floor. 

"In  Pilgrim^s  Progress  the  Man  with  the  Muck-rake  is  set   loitli 


2IO  ORAL  ENGLISH 

as  the  example  of  him  whose  vision  is  fixed  on  carnal  instead  of  on 
spiritual  things.  Yet  he  also  typifies  the  man  who  in  this  life  con- 
sistently refuses  to  see  aught  that  is  lofty,  and  fixes  his  eyes  with 
solemn  intentness  only  on  that  which  is  vile  and  debasing.  Now  it 
is  very  necessary  that  we  should  not  flinch  from  seeing  what  is  vile 
and  debasing.  There  is  filth  on  the  floor,  and  it  must  be  scraped  up 
with  the  muck-rake;  and  there  are  times  and  places  where  this  service 
is  the  most  needed  of  all  the  services  that  can  be  performed.  But 
the  man  who  never  does  anything  else,  who  never  thinks  or  speaks  or 
writes  save  of  his  feats  with  the  muck-rake,  speedily  becomes,  not  a 
help  to  society,  not  an  incitement  to  good,  but  one  of  the  most  potent 
forces  for  evil." 

4.  Introduction  to  an  oration  on  Abraham  Lincoln,  by  Booker  T. 
Washington. 

"You  ask  that  which  he  found  a  piece  of  property  and  turned  into 
a  free  American  citizen  to  speak  to  you  to-night  on  Abraham  Lincoln. 
I  am  not  fitted  by  ancestry  or  training  to  be  your  teacher  to-night, 
for,  as  I  have  stated,  I  was  born  a  slave. 

"My  first  knowledge  of  Abraham  Lincoln  came  in  this  way.  I 
was  awakened  early  one  morning  before  the  dawn  of  day  as  I  lay 
wrapt  in  a  bundle  of  rags  on  the  dirt  floor  of  our  slave  cabin,  by  the 
prayers  of  my  mother,  just  before  leaving  for  her  day's  work,  as  she 
was  kneeling  over  my  body,  earnestly  praying  that  Abraham  Lincoln 
might  succeed,  and  that  one  day  she  and  her  boy  might  be  free.  You 
give  me  the  opportunity  here  this  evening  to  celebrate  with  you  and 
the  nation  the  answer  to  that  prayer." 

■5.   Introduction  to  Roosevelt's  Address  on  "The  Strenuous  Life": 

"In  speaking  to  you,  men  of  the  greatest  city  of  the  West,  men  of 
the  State  which  gave  to  the  country  Lincoln  and  Grant,  men  who 
preeminently  and  distinctly  embody  all  that  is  most  American  in  the 
American  character,  I  wish  to  preach,  not  the  doctrine  of  ignoble 
ease,  but  the  doctrine  of  the  strenuous  life,  the  life  of  toil  and  effort, 
of  labor  and  strife,  to  preach  that  highest  form  of  success  which  comes, 
not  to  the  man  who  desires  mere  easy  peace,  but  to  the  man  who  does 
not  shrink  from  danger,  from  hardship,  or  from  bitter  toil,  and  who 
out  of  these  wins  the  splendid  ultimate  triumph." 


READING    LESSON    IX  211 

6.  Introduction  to  an  oration  on  Decoration  Day  by  Chauncey 
M.  Depew: 

"At  the  Centennial  Exhibition  was  a  picture  remarkable  for  its 
naturalness  and  the  story  it  portrayed.  It  was  the  Battle  of  Mon- 
mouth. An  aged  fifer,  his  gray  locks  streaming  in  the  wind,  with 
eager  step  was  leading  his  company  on  to  the  fray.  A  drummer  boy 
by  his  side  was  looking  anxiously  into  the  old  man's  eyes,  and  catch- 
ing from  him  the  tune  and  the  step  of  the  music  of  liberty.  So  upon 
this  day,  from  the  lives  arid  the  deeds  of  the  men  who  fought  in  the 
great  Civil  War,  from  the  causes  for  which  they  died  and  the  results 
which  they  achieved,  we  take  our  step  and  learn  our  lesson  of  how  to 
preserve  and  perpetuate  the  union  of  these  States." 

7.  Webster  concludes  his  speech  before  the  Agricultural  Society 
of  England: 

"With  respect  lo  the  occasion  which  has  called  us  together,  I  beg 
to  repeat  the  gratification  which  I  have  felt  in  passing  a  day  in  such 
a  company,  and  to  conclude  with  the  most  fervent  expression  of  my 
wish  for  the  prosperity  and  usefulness  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of 
England." 

8.  Conclusion  to  an  appeal  by  David  Dudley  Field  in  behalf  of 
the  Children's  Aid  Society: 

"This  paper  has  already  reached  tlic  limit  intended.  It  has  not 
gone  into  particulars;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  been  carefully  confined 
to  certain  general  propositions.  Their  development  and  execution 
are  matters  of  detail.  The  aim  of  tlie  article  is  attained  if  it  has 
helped  to  impress  upon  the  reader  this  lesson,  partly  social  and  partly 
political:  take  care  of  the  children,  and  the  men  and  women  will 
take  care  of  themselves." 

Q.  From  William  Jennings  Rryan's  reply  lo  the  Notification  Com- 
mittee, Campaign  of  iqoo: 

"I  conceive  a  national  destiny  surpassing  the  glories  of  the  present 
and  the  past  —  a  destiny  which  meets  the  responsibilities  of  to-day 
and  measures  up  to  the  possibilities  of  the  future.  Behold  a  Republic 
resting  securely  upon  the  foundation  stone  quarried  by  revolutionary 


212  ORAL  ENGLISH 

patriots  from  the  mountain  of  eternal  truth.  .  .  .  Behold  a  Repub- 
lic in  which  civil  and  religious  liberty  stimulates  all  to  earnest  en- 
deavor, and  in  which  the  law  restrains  every  hand  uplifted  for  a 
neighbor's  injury  —  a  Republic  in  which  every  citizen  is  a  sovereign, 
but  in  which  no  one  cares  to  wear  a  crown.  Behold  a  Republic  stand- 
ing erect  while  empires  all  around  are  bowed  beneath  the  weight  of 
their  own  armaments  —  a  Republic  whose  flag  is  loved  while  other 
flags  are  only  feared.  Behold  a  Republic  increasing  in  population, 
in  wealth,  in  strength,  and  in  influence,  solving  the  problems  of 
civilization  and  hastening  the  coming  of  a  universal  brotherhood  —  a 
RepubUc  which  shakes  thrones  and  dissolves  aristocracies  by  its  silent 
example,  and  gives  light  and  inspiration  to  those  who  sit  in  darkness. 
Behold  a  Republic  gradually  but  surely  becoming  the  supreme  factor 
in  the  world's  progress  and  the  accepted  arbiter  of  the  world's  dis- 
putes—a Republic  whose  history,  like  the  path  of  the  just,  'is 
as  the  shining  light  that  shineth  more  and  more  unto  the  perfect 
day.'" 

lo.  Conclusion  to  "Concord  Oration"  by  George  William  Curtis. 
In  the  body  of  his  address,  he  described  the  way  in  which  the  Minute 
Men  of  the  Revolution  had  vanquished  their  enemies: 

"No  royal  governor,  indeed,  sits  in  yon  stately  capitol,  no  hostile 
fleet  for  many  a  year  has  vexed  the  w^aters  of  our  coasts,  nor  is  any 
army  but  our  own  ever  likely  to  tread  our  soil.  Not  such  are  our 
enemies  to-day.  They  do  not  come,  proudly  stepping  to  the  drum- 
beat, with  bayonets  flashing  in  the  morning  sun.  But  wherever  party 
spirit  shall  strain  the  ancient  guaranties  of  freedom;  or  bigotry  and 
ignorance  shall  lay  their  fatal  hands  on  education;  or  the  arrogance 
of  caste  shall  strike  at  equal  rights;  or  corruption  shall  poison  the  very 
springs  of  national  life,  —  there.  Minute  Men  of  Liberty,  are  your 
Lexington  Green  and  Concord  Bridge.  And  as  you  love  your  country 
and  your  kind,  and  would  have  your  children  rise  up  and  call  you 
blessed,  spare  not  the  enemy.  Over  the  hills,  out  of  the  earth,  down 
from  the  clouds,  pour  in  resistless  might.  Fire  from  every  rock  and 
tree,  from  door  and  window,  from  hearthstone  and  chamber.  Hang 
upon  his  flank  from  morn  till  sunset,  and  so,  through  a  land  blazing 
with  indignation,  hurl  the  hordes  of  ignorance  and  corruption  and 
injustice  back,  —  back  in  utter  defeat  and  ruin." 


READING    LESSON    IX  213 

11.  Conclusion  of  an  address  by  George  William  Curtis  at  the 
laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  Washington  IMemorial  x\rch: 

"What  he  said  to  the  convention  he  says  to  us.  It  is  the  voice 
of  the  heroic  spirit  which  in  council  and  in  the  field  has  made,  and 
alone  wiU  preserve,  our  America.  It  is  the  voice  that  will  speak  from 
the  Memorial  Arch  to  all  coming  generations  of  Americans.  What- 
ever may  betide;  whatever  war,  foreign  or  domestic,  may  threaten; 
whatever  specious  sophistry  may  assail  the  political  conscience  of 
the  country,  or  bribery  of  place  or  money  corrupt  its  political  action; 
above  the  roar  of  the  mob  and  the  insidious  clamor  of  the  demagogue, 
the  voice  of  Washington  will  still  be  the  voice  of  American  patriotism 
and  of  manly  honor.  —  'Let  us  raise  a  standard  to  which  the  wise 
and  honest  can  repair;    the  event  is  in  the  hands  of  God.'" 

12.  Conclusion  of  a  speech  by  Sargent  S.  Prentiss,  delivered  at 
Jackson,  Miss.,  in  August,  1835: 

"Here  we  cannot  but  pause  to  contemplate  two  wonderful  men, 
belonging  to  the  same  age  and  to  the  same  nation:  Napoleon  and 
Lafayette.  Their  names  excite  no  kindred  emotions;  their  fates  no 
kindred  sympathies.  Napoleon  —  the  child  of  Destiny  —  the  thun- 
derbolt of  war  —  the  victor  in  a  hundred  battles  —  the  dispenser  of 
thrones  and  dominions;  he  who  scaled  the  Alps  and  reclined  beneath 
the  pyramids,  whose  word  was  fate  and  whose  wish  was  law.  Lafay- 
ette —  the  volunteer  of  Freedom  —  the  advocate  of  human  rights  — 
the  defender  of  civil  liberty  —  the  patriot  and  the  philanthro{)ist  — 
the  beloved  of  the  good  and  the  free.  Napoleon  —  the  vanquished 
warrior,  ignobly  tlying  from  the  field  of  Waterloo,  the  wild  beast, 
ravaging  all  Europe  in  his  wrath,  hunted  down  by  the  banded  nations 
and  caged  far  away  upon  an  ocean-girded  rock.  Lafayette  —  a 
watchword  by  which  men  excite  each  other  to  deeds  of  worth  and 
daring;  whose  home  has  become  the  Mecca  of  Freedom,  toward 
which  the  pilgrims  of  Libiiiy  turn  their  eyes  from  every  quarter  of 
the  globe.  Napoleon  was  the  red  and  fiery  comet,  shooting  wildly 
through  the  realms  of  space  and  scattering  pestilence  and  terror 
among  the  nations.  Lafayette  was  the  pure  and  brilliant  planet, 
beneath  whose  grateful  beams  the  mariner  directs  his  bark  and  the 
shepherd  tends  his  flocks.     Napoleon  died  and  a  few  old  warriors  — 


214  ORAL  ENGLISH 

the  scattered  relics  of  Marengo  and  Austerlitz  —  bewailed  their 
chief.  Lafayette  is  dead  and  the  tears  of  a  civilized  world  attest  how 
deep  is  the  mourning  for  his  loss.  Such  is  and  always  will  be  the 
difference  of  feeling  toward  a  benefactor  and  a  conqueror  of  the 
human  race." 


CHAPTER   XXI 

INTRODUCTIONS   AND    CONCLUSIONS 

Introduction.  —  The  introductions  and  conclusions  to 
the  short  speeches  composed  in  connection  with  earlier 
chapters  consisted  of  single  sentences.  The  theme  sen- 
tence formed  the  introduction,  while  a  varied  statement 
of  the  main  idea  made  the  conclusion.  From  this  prac- 
tice we  learned  that  introductions  and  conclusions  should 
be  brief.  In  longer  speeches,  they  should  bear  about  the 
same  relation  to  the  whole  speech  that  one  sentence  does 
to  a  two-minute  speech.  An  audience  does  not  enjoy  a 
speaker  who  takes  too  long  to  come  to  the  point,  or  one 
who  starts  to  end  his  speech  and  then  does  not  do  so. 

Success  in  formal  debating  does  not  require  an  extended 
study  of  introductions  and  conclusions.  In  connection 
with  brief-making  we  considered  the  nature  of  an  intro- 
duction to  a  debate.  We  learned  that  its  purpose  was 
primarily  to  explain  the  question;  that  it  was  given  only 
by  the  first  speaker;  and  that  it  should  occupy  not  more 
than  one-third  of  his  time.  We  saw,  also,  from  a  study 
of  Reading  Lesson  VITI  that  the  conclusion  of  a  speech 
in  a  debate  is  practically  a  summary  of  the  main  argument. 

When,  however,  we  take  up  the  study  of  various  kinds 
of  longer  speeches,  other  than  the  debate,  we  find  that  the 
speaker  may  use  various  means  to  accomplish  his  purposes. 
In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn  that  a  speaker  may  wish  to 
accomplish  by  his  introduction  and  conclusion  cither  one 


2i6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

or  both  of  two  objects:  he  may  wish  to  establish  right 
relations  with  his  audience,  or  he  may  wish  to  give  unity 
to  his  speech. 

I.   Personal  Introductions  and  Conclusions 

If  the  speaker's  main  purpose  is  to  establish  right  re- 
lations with  his  audience,  he  will  use  an  introduction  and 
a  conclusion  of  a  personal  nature.  His  introduction  may 
treat  of  his  relation  to  his  subject.  The  opening  paragraph 
of  Booker  T.  Washington's  oration  on  Abraham  Lincoln 
is  a  good  example.  Again,  the  introduction  may  treat 
of  the  speaker's  relation  to  liis  audience,  as  does  that  of 
Lincoln  to  the  citizens  of  Ohio.  (Reading  Lesson  X,  i, 
page  220.)  In  his  conclusion,  the  speaker  will  attempt 
to  take  graceful  leave  of  his  audience.  (See  the  conclu- 
sion to  Webster's  Address  before  the  Agricultural  Society 
of  England,  Reading  Lesson  IX,  7.) 

The  personal  note  is  usually  appropriate  in  speeches 
made  on  social  occasions,  and  is  frequently  not  out  of 
place  in  persuasive  speeches.  The  speaker  must  be  care- 
ful, however,  that  by  its  use  he  does  not  give  an  impres- 
sion of  egotism.  A  person  of  experience  and  reputation 
can  open  and  close  a  speech  in  a  personal  way  with  better 
grace  than  can  a  young  speaker.  It  is,  perhaps,  needless 
to  say  that  this  form  of  introduction  and  conclusion  should 
never  be  used  in  a  formal  debate. 

II.   Unity 

If  a  speaker's  main  purpose  is  to  increase  the  unity  of 
his  speech  through  his  introduction  and  conclusion,  he 
has  various  methods  at  his  disposal. 

Introduction.  —  In  his  introduction  he  should  try  in 


INTRODUCTIONS    AND    CONCLUSIONS        217 

some  way  to  sound  the  keynote  of  his  speech.  He  may 
state  the  theme  of  his  speech  clearly  and  fully,  as  Roosevelt 
did  in  his  address  on  "  The  Strenuous  Life."  This  form 
is  better  adapted  to  argument,  however,  than  to  other 
forms  of  address. 

Again,  the  speaker  may  use  what  is  called  a  general 
introduction.  In  this,  he  makes  reference  to  the  larger 
subject,  one  phase  of  which  he  expects  to  discuss  more 
fully.  This  method  was  used  by  John  Hay  in  his  eulogy 
on  President  AIcKinley.     (Reading  Lesson  IX,  i.) 

Perhaps  the  most  artistic  method  of  opening  an  address 
is  merely  to  suggest  the  theme  of  the  discourse.  This  can 
be  done  in  several  ways:  Mr.  Depew,  in  his  oration  on 
Decoration  Day,  introduced  his  theme  by  a  description  of 
the  fifer  and  the  drummer  boy.  (Reading  Lesson  IX, 
6);  Mr.  Grady,  in  his  oration  on  "The  New  South,"  used 
an  appropriate  quotation  (Reading  Lesson  IX,  2);  and 
Mr.  Roosevelt,  in  his  speech,  "The  Man  with  the  Muck- 
rake," uses  a  literary  allusion.  A  speaker  should  be 
very  sure  that  his  story,  quotation,  or  illustration  really 
does  sound  the  keynote  of  his  speech.  A  story  which  is 
"dragged"  in  in  an  attempt  merely  to  create  a  laugh  is 
an  unfortunate  beginning. 

Conclusion.  —  In  his  conclusion,  the  speaker  should 
try  to  gain  unity  by  emphasizing  the  main  thought.  Such 
a  conclusion  may  be  called  an  emphatic  as  distinguished 
from  a  personal  conclusion.  It  should  be  the  climax  of 
the  whole  speech;  that  is,  the  speaker  should  have  "saved 
his  best  wine  until  tlic  last." 

There  are  three  kinds  of  emphatic  conclusions.  The 
simplest  form  is  the  summary.  (See  Reading  Lesson  IX, 
8,  for  examj)le.)     A  summary  should  be  more  than  a  mere 


2i8  ORAL  ENGLISH 

enumeration  of  the  points  that  have  been  made.  It  should 
throw  some  new  hght  on  the  central  thought  and  should 
sound  in  a  most  impressive  way  the  keynote  of  the  speech. 
It  may  take  the  form  of  a  contrast,  as  in  the  case  of  Pren- 
tiss' eulogy  of  Lafayette.     (Reading  Lesson  IX,  12.) 

An  emphatic  conclusion  may  look  forward  into  the 
future,  expressing  hope  in  regard  to  growth  or  results. 
Such  is  the  conclusion  of  Bryan's  reply  to  the  Notification 
Committee.  (Reading  Lesson  IX,  9.)  It  may  make  an 
application  of  certain  truths  to  the  life  of  the  people,  and 
may  urge  the  listeners  to  action.  The  conclusion  of  the 
Concord  Oration  by  George  William  Curtis  is  an  excellent 
example  of  this  method. 

The  third  kind  of  emphatic  conclusion  gives  final  ex- 
pression to  the  thought  in  the  form  of  a  quotation.  (See 
Reading  Lesson  IX,  11.) 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  the  vari- 
ous ways  in  which  a  speaker  may  use  an  introduction 
and  conclusion  either  to  establish  right  relations  with  his 
audience  or  to  increase  the  unity  of  his  speech. 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Introduction  and  Conclusion 
Iniroduction. 

I.    Brevity  necessary. 
II.   Nature  of  the  introduction  and  conclusion  in  a  debate. 
III.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.    Personal  introductions  and  conclusions. 
A .    Purpose.  —  How  gained. 

1.  Relation  to  subject. 

2.  Relation  to  audience. 

3.  Conclusion. 


INTRODUCTIONS  AND   CONCLUSIONS         219 

I.       B.    When  appropriate. 
C.    Danger. 
II.    Unity. 

A.  Introduction. 

1.  Statement  of  theme. 

2.  General  introduction. 

3.  Suggestion. 

(a)  Description. 

(b)  Quotation. 

(c)  Literary  or  historical  allusion. 

(i)    Not  dragged  in. 

B.  Conclusion. 

1.  Emphatic. 

(a)    Climax. 

2.  Three  kinds. 

(a)  Summary. 

(i)    Not  an  enumeration. 
(2)    Contrast. 

(b)  Looking  forward. 

(i)    Hope. 

(2)    Urging  to  action. 

(c)  Quotation. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  L  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 


220  ORAL  ENGLISH 


READING   LESSON    X 

Examples  of  Persuasive  Speech 

1.  Introduction  to  a  speech  by  Abraham  Lincoln: 

"Fellow  Citizens  of  the  State  of  Ohio:  I  cannot  fail  to  remember 
that  I  appear  for  the  first  time  before  an  audience  in  this  now  great 
State,  —  an  audience  that  is  accustomed  to  hear  such  speakers  as 
Corwin,  and  Chase,  and  Wade,  and  many  other  renowned  men;  and 
remembering  this,  I  feel  that  it  will  be  well  for  you,  as  for  me,  that 
you  should  not  raise  your  expectations  to  that  standard  to  which  you 
would  have  been  justified  in  raising  them  had  one  of  these  distin- 
guished men  appeared  before  you.  You  would  perhaps  be  only  pre- 
paring disappointment  for  yourselves,  and,  as  a  consequence  of  your 
disappointment,  mortification  for  me.  I  hope,  therefore,  that  you 
will  commence  with  very  moderate  expectations;  and  perhaps  if  you 
will  give  me  your  attention,  I  shall  be  able  to  interest  you  in  a 
moderate  degree." 

2.  Garfield,  speaking  as  a  Representative  in  the  House  in  reference 
to  a  certain  action,  began,  "I  wish  I  could  be  proved  a  false  prophet 
in  reference  to  the  result  of  this  action.  I  wish  that  I  could  be  over- 
whelmed with  the  proof  that  I  am  utterly  mistaken  in  my  views." 

3.  In  a  debate  on  "The  Recall  of  Judges,"  the  first  affirmative 
speaker  began  as  follows: 

"The  advocates  of  recall  do  not  fail  to  recognize  the  absolute  in- 
tegrity and  high  scholarship  of  many  who  occupy  judicial  positions. 
The  movement  for  popular  recall  is  not  an  attack  upon  the  bench  as 
a  whole;  it  is  merely  an  attempt  to  correct  certain  conditions  and  to 
remove  such  individuals  as  may,  in  time,  serve  to  bring  the  judiciary 
into  disrepute." 

4.  From  William  Jennings  Bryan's  speech  on  the  Chicago 
Platform : 

"I  would  be  presumptuous  indeed  to  present  myself  against  the 
distinguished  gentleman  to  whom  you  have  listened,  if  this  were  a 
mere  measuring  of  abilities;  but  this  is  not  a  contest  between  persons. 
The  humblest  citizen  in  all  the  land,  when  clad  in  the  armor  of  a 


READING    LESSON    X  221 

righteous  cause,  is  stronger  than  all  the  hosts  of  error.  I  come  to 
speak  to  you  in  defense  of  a  cause  as  holy  as  the  cause  of  Uberty,  the 
cause  of  humanity." 

5.  This  oration  was  delivered  by  Napoleon  to  the  Army  of  Italy 
on  May  15,  1796,  six  days  after  the  battle  of  Lodi.  In  response,  the 
French  beat  back  the  Austrians  into  Austria  after  nearly  one  year 
of  fierce  fighting: 

"Soldiers!  You  have  precipitated  yourselves  like  a  torrent  from 
the  Apennines.  You  have  overwhelmed  or  swept  before  you  all  that 
opposed  your  march.  Piedmont,  delivered  from  Austrian  oppression, 
has  returned  to  her  natural  sentiments  of  peace  and  friendship  toward 
France.  Milan  is  yours;  and  over  all  Lombardy  floats  the  flag  of 
the  Republic.  To  your  generosity  only  do  the  Dukes  of  Parma  and 
Modena  now  owe  their  political  existence.  The  army  which  proudly 
threatened  you  finds  no  remaining  barrier  of  defense  against  your 
courage.  The  Po,  the  Ticino,  the  Adda,  could  not  stop  you  a  single 
day.  Those  vaunted  ramparts  of  Italy  proved  insufficient;  you 
traversed  them  as  rapidly  as  you  did  the  Apennines.  Successes  so 
numerous  and  brilliant  have  carried  joy  to  the  heart  of  your  country. 
Your  representatives  have  decreed  a  festival  to  be  celebrated  in  all 
the  communes  of  the  Republic,  in  honor  of  your  victories.  There  will 
your  fathers,  mothers,  wives,  sisters,  all  who  hold  you  dear,  rejoice 
over  your  triumphs,  and  boast  that  you  belong  to  them. 

"Yes,  soldiers,  you  have  done  much;  but  much  still  remains  for 
you  to  do.  Shall  it  be  said  of  us  that  we  knew  how  to  conquer,  but 
not  how  to  profit  by  victory?  Shall  posterity  reproach  us  with  having 
found  a  Capua  in  Lombardy?  Nay,  fellow  soldiers!  I  see  you 
already  eager  to  cry  'To  arms!'  Inaction  fatigues  you;  and  days 
lost  to  glory  arc  to  you  days  lost  to  happiness.  Let  us,  then,  begone! 
V\'e  have  yet  many  forced  marches  to  make;  enemies  to  vanquish; 
laurels  to  gather;  and  injuries  to  avenge!  Let  those  who  have  sharp- 
ened the  poniards  of  civil  war  in  I'rance,  who  have  pusillanimously 
assassinated  our  Ministers,  who  have  burned  our  vessels  at  Toulon, 
—  let  them  now  tremble!     Tlie  hour  of  vengeance  has  knolled! 

"  But  let  not  the  people  be  disquieted.  VVe  are  the  friends  of  every 
people;  and  more  especially  of  the  descendants  of  the  Brutuscs,  the 
Scipios,  and  other  great  men  to  whom  we  look  as  bright  exemplars. 


2  22  ORAL  ENGLISH 

To  reestablish  the  Capitol;  to  place  there  with  honor  the  statues  of 
the  heroes  who  made  it  memorable;  to  rouse  the  Roman  people, 
unnerved  by  many  centuries  of  oppression,  —  such  will  be  some  of 
the  fruits  of  our  victories.  They  will  constitute  an  epoch  for  pos- 
terity. To  you,  soldiers,  will  belong  the  immortal  honor  of  redeeming 
the  fairest  portion  of  Europe.  The  French  people,  free  and  respected 
by  the  whole  world,  shall  give  to  Europe  a  glorious  peace,  which 
shall  indemnify  it  for  all  the  sacrifices  which  it  has  borne  the  last  six 
years.  Then,  by  your  own  firesides  you  shall  repose,  and  your  fel- 
low citizens,  when  they  point  out  any  one  of  you,  shall  say,  'He  be- 
longed to  the  army  of  Italy!'" 

6.  Introduction  to  an  address  by  Woodrow  Wilson,  entitled 
"The  Bible  and  Progress": 

"I  come  here  to-night  to  speak  of  the  Bible  as  the  book  of  the 
people,  not  the  book  of  the  minister  of  the  Gospel,  not  the  special 
book  of  the  priest  from  which  to  set  forth  some  occult,  unknown 
doctrine  withheld  from  the  common  understanding  of  men,  but  a 
great  book  of  revelation  —  the  people's,  book  of  revelation." 

7.  From  a  speech  at  Liverpool  by  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  October 
16,  1863: 

"It  is  a  matter  of  very  little  consequence  to  me,  personally,  whether 
I  speak  here  to-night  or  not.  But  one  thing  is  very  certain,  if  you  do 
permit  me  to  speak  here  to-night,  you  will  hear  very  plain  talking. 
You  will  not  find  me  to  be  a  man  that  dared  to  speak  about  Great 
Britain  three  thousand  miles  off  and  then  is  afraid  to  speak  to 
Great  Britain  when  he  stands  on  her  shores,  and  if  I  do  not  mistake 
the  tone  and  temper  of  English  men,  they  had  rather  have  a  man 
who  opposes  them  in  a  manly  way  than  a  sneak  who  argues  with 
them  in  an  unmanly  way.  Now  if  I  can  carry  you  with  me  by 
sound  conviction,  I  shall  be  immensely  glad;  but  if  I  cannot  carry 
you  with  me  by  facts  and  sound  arguments,  I  do  not  wish  you  to 
go  with  me  at  all,  and  all  that  I  ask  is  simply  fair  play." 

8.  Rudyard  Kipling  made  the  following  address  in  London,  Feb- 
ruary 20,  191 5,  before  a  meeting  called  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
subscriptions  to  furnish  the  armies  with  music: 

"I  am  greatly  honored  by  the  lord  mayor's  request  to  speak  be- 


READING    LESSON    X  223 

fore  }-ou.  The  most  useful  thing  that  a  civilian  can  do  in  these  busy 
days  is  to  speak  as  Httle  as  possible,  and,  if  he  feels  moved  to  write, 
to  confine  his  efforts  to  his  check-book.  But  this  is  an  exception  to 
that  very  good  rule. 

"We  do  not  know  the  present  strength  of  our  new  armies.  Even 
if  we  did  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  make  it  public.  We  may  assume 
there  are  now  several  battalions  in  Great  Britain  which  did  not  e.xist 
at  the  end  of  last  July,  and  some  of  these  battalions  are  in  London. 
Nor  is  it  any  part  of  our  national  scheme  of  things  to  explain  how  far 
they  are  prepared  for  the  work  ahead  of  them.  They  were  quite 
rightly  born  in  silence  for  the  rest  of  their  lives.  At  present,  un- 
fortunately, most  of  them  are  obliged  to  walk  in  silence,  or  to  no  better 
accompaniment  than  whistles,  concertinas,  and  other  meritorious  but 
inadequate  instruments  of  music  which  they  provide  for  themselves. 

"In  the  beginning  this  did  not  matter  so  much.  There  were  more 
urgent  needs  to  be  met ;  but  now  that  the  new  armies  are  what  they 
are,  we,  who  cannot  assist  them  by  joining  their  ranks,  owe  it  to  them 
to  provide  them  with  more  worthy  music  for  their  help  and  comfort 
and  honor.  I  am  not  a  musician,  so  if  I  speak  as  a  barbarian,  forgive 
me. 

"From  the  lowest  point  of  view,  a  few  drums  and  fifes  in  a  bat- 
talion are  worth  five  extra  miles  on  a  route  march  —  quite  apart  from 
the  fact  that  they  swing  the  battalion  back  to  quarters  composed  and 
happy  in  its  mind;  where  there  is  no  route-marching,  the  mere 
come-and-go,  the  roll  and  flourish  of  the  drums  and  fifes  round 
barracks  is  as  warming  and  cheering  as  the  sight  of  a  fire  in  a  room. 

"A  band  —  not  necessarily  a  full  band,  but  a  band  of  a  few  brasses 
and  wood  winds  —  is  immensely  valuable  in  districts  where  troops 
are  billeted.  It  revives  memories;  it  quickens  associations;  it  opens 
and  unites  the  hearts  of  men  more  surely  than  any  other  appeal.  In 
that  respect  it  assists  recruiting  perhaps  more  than  any  other  agency. 
The  tunes  that  it  employs  and  the  words  that  go  with  them  may 
seem  very  far  removed  from  heroism  or  devotion;  but  the  magic 
and  the  compelling  power  are  there  to  make  men's  souls  realize 
certain  truths  which  their  minds  might  doubt. 

"More  than  that.  No  one  —  not  even  the  adjutant — can  say 
for  certain  where  the  soul  of  a  battalion  lives;  but  the  expression  of 
that  soul  is  most  often  found  in  the  band.     It  stands  to  leason  that 


224  ORAL  ENGLISH 

a  body  of  1200  men  whose  lives  are  pledged  to  each  other's  keeping 
must  have  some  common  means  of  expressing  their  thoughts  and 
moods  to  themselves  and  to  their  world.  The  band  can  feel  the 
mood  and  interpret  it  to  their  world. 

"A  wise  and  sympathetic  bandmaster  —  and  most  that  I  have 
known  have  been  that  —  can  lift  a  battalion  out  of  depression,  cheer 
it  in  sickness,  and  steady  and  recall  it  to  itself  in  times  of  almost 
unendurable  strain.  You  will  remember  a  beautiful  poem  by  Sir 
Henry  Newbolt  describing  how  a  squadron  of  '  weary  big  dragoons' 
were  led  on  to  renewed  effort  by  the  strains  of  a  penny  whistle  and  a 
child's  drum  taken  from  a  toyshop  in  a  wrecked  French  town. 

"And  I  remember  in  a  cholera  camp  in  India,  where  the  men  were 
suffering  very  badly,  the  band  of  the  loth  Lincolns  started  a  regi- 
mental sing-song  one  night  with  that  queer  defiant  tune,  'The  Lin- 
colnshire Poacher.'  It  was  merely  their  regimental  march  which  the 
men  had  heard  a  thousand  times.  There  was  nothing  in  it  except  — 
except  all  England  —  all  the  East  Coast  —  all  the  fun  and  daring 
and  horseplay  of  young  men  bucketing  about  the  big  pastures  by 
moonhght.  But,  as  it  was  given,  very  softly,  at  that  bad  time  in 
that  terrible  camp  of  death,  it  was  the  one  thing  in  the  world  which 
could  have  restored  —  as  it  did  —  shaken  men  to  pride,  honor,  and 
self-control.  This  is,  perhaps,  an  extreme  case,  but  by  no  means  an 
exceptional  one.  A  man  who  has  had  any  experience  of  the  service 
can  testify  that  a  battalion  is  better  for  music  at  every  turn  —  happier, 
easier  to  handle,  and  with  greater  zest  for  its  daily  routine  if  that 
routine  is  sweetened  by  melody  and  rhythm  —  melody  for  the  mind 
and  rhythm  for  the  body. 

"Our  new  armies  have  not  been  well  served  in  this  essential.  Of 
all  the  admirable  qualities  they  have  shown,  none  is  more  wonderful 
than  the  spirit  which  has  carried  them  through  the  laborious  and  dis- 
tasteful groundwork  of  their  calling  without  a  note  of  music  except 
what  that  same  indomitable  spirit  supplied  —  out  of  its  own  head. 
We  have  all  seen  them  marching  through  the  country  or  through 
London  streets  in  absolute  silence,  and  the  crowd  through  which  they 
pass  as  silent  as  themselves  for  lack  of  the  one  medium  that  could 
convey  and  glorify  the  thoughts  which  are  in  all  men's  minds  to-day. 

"We  are  a  tongue-tied  breed  at  the  best.  The  band  can  declare 
on  our  behalf,  without  shame  or  shyness,  something  of  what  we  feel, 


READING    LESSON    X  225 

and  so  help  us  to  reach  a  hand  towards  the  men  who  have  risen  up 
to  save  us. 

"We  have  had  many  proofs  in  the  last  six  months  that  people 
only  want  to  be  told  what  the  new  armies  require  and  it  will  be  freely 
and  gladly  given.  The  army  needs  music  —  its  own  music  —  for, 
more  than  any  other  calling,  soldiers  do  not  live  by  bread  alone. 
From  time  immemorial  the  man  who  offers  his  life  for  his  land  has 
been  compassed  at  ever\'  turn  of  his  service  by  elaborate  ceremonial 
and  observance  of  which  music  is  no  small  part  —  carefully  designed 
to  prepare  and  uphold  him.  It  is  not  expedient  nor  seemly  that  any 
portion  of  that  ritual  should  be  slurred  or  omitted  now." 


CHAPTER   XXII 

THE   PERSUASIVE   SPEECH 

Introduction.  —  The  persuasive  speech,  as  we  have 
learned  in  an  earlier  chapter,  aims  to  secure  action  on 
the  part  of  the  hsteners.  It  does  this  by  an  appeal  both 
to  the  feelings  and  to  the  understanding.  We  found, 
however,  that  if  the  speaker  appeals  to  the  feelings  only, 
and  does  not  support  his  appeal  by  sound  reasoning,  the 
impulse  to  act  is  hkely  to  be  of  short  duration.  We  have, 
therefore,  spent  much  time  in  studying  the  process  of  argu- 
ment. But  again  we  find  that  conviction  alone,  which  is 
the  aim  of  the  debater,  is  not  always  sufficient  to  secure 
action.  The  reasoning  processes  of  men  are  apt  to  be  mod- 
ified by  their  education  and  personal  interests  and,  as  a 
result,  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  persuasive  speaker 
to  remove  old  prejudices  and  arouse  new  motives.  The 
really  effective  persuasive  speech  produces  convictions 
and  creates  a  willingness  to  act  upon  those  convictions. 

According  to  Archbishop  Magee,  there  are  three  kinds 
of  speakers:  (i)  the  kind  you  can't  listen  to;  (2)  the  kind 
you  can  listen  to;  and  (3)  the  kind  you  can't  help  hsten- 
ing  to.  This  last  class  has  learned  the  art  of  persuasive 
speech. 

Persuasiveness  is  much  more  than  the  gift  of  making 
emotional  appeals.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i) 
that  it  involves  the  right  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
speaker  toward  himself,  his  subject,  and  his  audience; 
(2)  that  it  includes  the  ability  of  the  speaker  to  adapt  his 


THE  PERSUASIVE  SPEECH  227 

message  to  his  audience;    (3)  that  it  hes  in  the  power  of 
the  speaker  to  create  a  sense  of  unity  in  his  audience. 

I.   Right  Attitude 

Toward  Himself.  —  The  persuasive  speaker  should  be 
modest  and,  at  the  same  time,  self-respecting  and  self- 
reliant.  Lincoln's  introduction  to  his  speech  in  Ohio 
furnishes  an  excellent  example  of  sincere  modesty.  It 
scarcely  need  be  said  that  affectation  of  modesty  would  be 
repellent.  The  extract  from  Beecher's  speech  at  Liver- 
pool reveals  to  us  the  persuasive  power  of  an  attitude 
which  is  outspoken  and  self-reliant,  yet  not  discourteous. 

Toward  his  Subject.  —  A  persuasive  speaker  must  have 
absolute  faith  in  the  dignity  and  righteousness  of  the  cause 
for  which  he  stands.  ^Ir.  Holyoake  says,  "The  true  use 
of  the  art  of  pubhc  speaking  is  the  protection  of  the  un- 
friended truth  and  the  vindication  of  the  imperiled  right." 
If,  then,  we  are  putting  our  art  to  its  highest  use,  we  need 
not  lack  this  one  element  of  persuasiveness  —  confidence 
in  the  worthiness  of  our  cause.  This  attitude  is  well  illus- 
trated by  Bryan's  speech  on  the  Chicago  Platform. 

The  truly  persuasive  speaker  is  in  earnest  about  his 
subject.  He  talks,  not  to  display  his  ability  but  to  accom- 
plish results.  As  some  one  has  said,  "He  does  not  present 
a  beautiful  picture  and  then  stand  in  front  of  it."  His 
emotional  appeals  are  successful  because  he  first  feels  the 
emotion  himself.  This  absolute  sincerity  has  been  a 
characteristic  of  all  great  persuasive  speakers.  Pericles, 
the  great  orator  of  the  Golden  Age,  who  swayed  Athens 
as  he  would,  is  said  to  have  always  prayed  to  the  gods  be- 
fore speaking  that  he  might  utter  no  words  unsuited  to 
his  auditcjrs  and  to  the  occasion. 


2  28  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Toward  his  Audience.  —  The  speaker  who  is  persuasive 
is  always  courteous  and  even  complimentary.  Lincoln 
said,  "I  always  assume  that  my  audiences  are  in  many 
things  wiser  than  I  am,  and  I  say  the  most  sensible  thing 
I  can  to  them.  I  never  found  that  they  did  not  under- 
stand me."  The  persuasive  speaker  feels  and  expresses 
confidence  in  the  ability  and  willingness  of  his  hearers 
to  do  what  he  urges  them  to  do.  Napoleon's  address  to 
his  soldiers  breathes  confidence  in  every  line. 

Again,  the  persuasive  speaker  expresses  his  views  with 
moderation  in  order  that  he  may  not  arouse  unnecessary 
antagonism  on  the  part  of  those  who  differ  from  him. 
Coleridge  expresses  the  need  of  such  moderation  when  he 
says,  "Truth  is  a  good  dog,  but  beware  of  barking  too 
closely  at  the  heels  of  error,  lest  you  get  your  brains  kicked 
out."  Reading  Lesson  X^  3  furnishes  an  example  of  a 
mild  statement  of  the  speaker's  position  —  one  which  is 
calculated  to  allay  prejudice. 

II.   Adaptation  to  Audience 

The  persuasive  speaker  seeks  to  adapt  his  message  to 
his  audience.  One  who  knows  his  message  but  not  his 
audience  is  not  likely  to  reach  them  with  his  message. 
When  a  speaker  is  planning  for  a  given  occasion,  he  should 
ask  himself  these  questions:  What  does  my  audience  al- 
ready know  about  my  subject?  What  do  they  usually 
think  and  talk  about?  What  can  I  use  of  their  knowledge 
as  an  illustration  of  my  own? 

Henry  Ward  Beecher  was  a  master  of  persuasive  dis- 
course. When  he  lectured  in  the  British  Isles  to  gain 
support  for  the  Northern  cause,  he  showed  that  he  under- 
stood this  principle  perfectly.     When  speaking  in  Glas- 


THE   PERSUASIVE   SPEECH  229 

gow,  where  laborers  were  interested  in  building  blockade 
runners,  he  pointed  out  the  evil  effects  of  slavery  upon 
labor;  but,  when  speaking  to  a  cultured  audience  in 
Edinburgh,  he  dealt  with  the  philosophy  and  history  of 
slavery. 

III.   Sense  of  Unity  in  the  Audience 

The  persuasive  speaker  tries  to  create  in  his  audience 
a  sense  of  unity.  He  changes  them  from  persons  of  vary- 
ing purposes  to  a  group  with  a  common  purpose.  He 
may  accompHsh  this  in  various  ways.^  A  very  common 
method  is  to  tell  a  story.  Edgar  R.  Jones  says  in  The 
Art  of  the  Orator,  "Once  individuals  are  got  to  laugh 
together  or  cry  together,  they  are  in  the  speaker's  hand; 
he  has  them  bound  to  him  with  a  cord  of  sympathy;  he 
can  sway  them  as  one  mind." 

Again,  he  may  refer  to  personages  who  are  revered  by 
all  or  by  a  large  proportion  of  his  audience;  such  as 
Washington,  Lincoln,  or  Christ.  He  may  appeal  to  ideals 
which  all  human  beings  have  in  common,  such  as  self- 
interest,  freedom,  honesty,  chivalry,  duty,  patriotism, 
love  of  home  and  family.  It  is  best  to  begin  with  as  high 
motives  as  possible  and  lead  to  higher  ones.  The  average 
man,  although  he  may  at  times  be  secretly  governed  by 
sordid  motives,  yields  more  readily  to  the  speaker  who 
appeals  to  motives  that  are  generally  commended. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned:  (i) 
that  the  persuasive  speaker  has  the  right  attitude  toward 
himself,  his  subject,  and  his  audience;  (2)  that  he  adapts 
his  message  to  his  audience;  and  (3)  that  he  creates  in 
his  audience  a  sense  of  unity. 


230  ORAL   ENGLISH 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

The  Persuasive  Speech 
Introduction. 

I.   Why  the  effective   speech   includes   both   argument  and 
persuasion. 


II.   Three  kinds  of  speakers. 

III.   Advance  summary. 

Body. 

I.    Right  attitude. 

A. 

Toward  himself. 

I.   Modesty. 

2.   Self-reliance. 

B. 

Toward  his  subject. 

I.    Faith  —  Holyoake. 

2.   Earnestness. 

(o)   Picture. 

{b)    Emotion. 

(c)    Pericles. 

C. 

Toward  his  audience. 

I.    Courteous  —  Lincoln. 

2.    Confidence  —  Napoleon. 

3.    Moderation. 

(c)    Coleridge. 

{b)    Example. 

II.   Adaptation  to  audience. 

A. 

Questions. 

B. 

Beecher. 

III.   Sense  of  unity  in  the  audience. 

A. 

From  individuals  to  group  —  Jones, 

B. 

Personages. 

C. 

Ideals. 

I.   High  motives  —  reason. 

Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Re-read  Dickens'  speech  (Reading  Lesson  III,  page 


THE    PERSUASIVE    SPEECH  231 

54)  and  Kipling's  speech  (Reading  Lesson  X,  page  220)  and  find  as 
many  illustrations  as  possible  of  points  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

Exercise  III. — Read  the  following  speeches  of  St.  Paul  in  the 
New  Testament  and  make  a  list  of  their  persuasive  points.  To  the 
Athenians  {Acts,  xvii:  22-32);    before  Agrippa  {Acts,  xxvi). 

Exercise  IV.  —  Prepare  a  speech  (of  not  more  than  four  minutes) 
which  has  a  persuasive  purpose.  Consult  the  list  of  subjects  for 
persuasive  speeches  (Appendix  VII)  for  suggestions  as  to  a  topic. 
Use  as  many  as  possible  of  the  suggestions  given  in  this  chapter. 

Exercise  V.  —  Repeat  the  speech  prepared  in  Exercise  IV,  but 
adapt  it  to  an  altogether  different  audience. 

Exercise  VI.  —  Written  Review.  Be  able  to  write  in  class  upon 
any  of  the  following  topics: 

1.  Personal  Introductions  and  Conclusions. 

2.  The  Introduction  as  a  Keynote. 

3.  The  Emphatic  Conclusion. 

4.  Attitude  of  the  Persuasive  Speaker. 

5.  Adaptation  to  the  Audience. 

6.  Creation  of  a  Sense  of  Unity  in  the  Audience. 


232  ORAL   ENGLISH 

READING   LESSON   XI 

Orations 

I.  Speech  by  William  CuUen  Bryant  as  president  of  the  day  at  a 
banquet  of  the  Burns  Club  of  New  York,  in  celebration  of  the  cen- 
tenary of  the  poet's  birth:  ^ 

"On  rising  to  begin  the  announcement  of  the  regular  toasts  for 
this  evening,  my  first  duty  is  to  thank  my  excellent  friends  of  the 
Burns  Club,  with  whom  I  do  not  now  meet  for  the  first  time,  and 
whose  annual  festivities  are  among  the  pleasantest  I  ever  attended, 
for  the  honor  they  have  done  me  in  calling  me  to  the  chair  I  occupy  — 
an  honor  the  more  to  be  prized  on  account  of  the  rare  occasion  on  which 
it  is  bestowed.  An  honor  which  can  be  conferred  but  once  in  a  cen- 
tury is  an  honor  indeed.  This  evening  the  memory  of  Burns  will  be 
celebrated  as  it  never  was  before.  His  fame,  from  the  time  when  he 
first  appeared  before  the  world  as  a  poet,  has  been  growing  and  bright- 
ening, as  the  morning  brightens  into  the  perfect  day.  There  never  was 
a  time  when  his  merits  were  so  freely  acknowledged  as  now;  when 
the  common  consent  of  the  literary  world  placed  him  so  high,  or 
spoke  his  praises  wdth  so  little  intermixture  of  disparagement;  when 
the  anniversary  of  his  birth  could  have  awakened  so  general  and 
fervent  an  enthusiasm.  If  we  could  imagine  a  human  being  endowed 
with  the  power  of  making  himself,  through  the  medium  of  his  senses, 
a  witness  of  whatever  is  passing  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  what  a  series 
of  festivities,  what  successive  manifestations  of  the  love  and  admira- 
tion which  all  who  speak  our  language  bear  to  the  Scottish  poet, 
would  present  themselves  to  his  observation,  accompanying  the 
shadow  of  this  night  in  its  circuit  round  the  earth.  .  .  .  Well  has 
our  great  poet  deserved  this  universal  commemoration  —  for  who 
has  written  like  him?  What  poem  descriptive  of  rural  manners  and 
virtues,  rural  life  in  its  simplicity  and  dignity  —  yet  without  a  single 
false  outline  or  touch  of  false  coloring  —  clings  to  our  memories  and 
lives  in  our  bosoms  like  his  'Cotter's  Saturday  Night'?  What 
humorous  narrative  in  verse  can  be  compared  with  his  'Tam  o'Shan- 

1  From  Chronicle  of  the  Hundredth  Birthday  of  Robert  Burns,  edited 
by  James  Ballantine.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1859. 


READING    LESSON    XI  233 

ter'  ?  From  the  fall  of  Adam  to  his  time,  I  beHeve,  there  was  nothing 
written  in  the  vein  of  his  'Mountain  Daisy';  others  have  caught  his 
spirit  from  that  poem,  but  who  among  them  all  has  excelled  him? 
Of  all  the  convivial  songs  I  have  ever  seen  in  any  language,  there  is 
none  so  overflovnng  with  the  spirit  of  conviviality,  so  joyous,  so 
contagious,  as  his  song  of  'Willie  brewed  a  peck  o'  maut.'  What 
love  songs  are  sweeter  and  tenderer  than  those  of  Burns?  \\'hat 
song  addresses  itself  so  movingly  to  our  love  of  old  friends  and  our 
pleasant  recollections  of  old  days  as  his  'Auld  Lang  Syne,'  or  to  the 
domestic  affections  so  powerfully  as  his  'John  Anderson'? 

"You  heard  yesterda3^  my  friends,  and  you  wUl  hear  againto-day, 
better  things  said  of  the  genius  of  Burns  than  I  can  say.  That  will 
be  your  gain  and  mine.  But  there  is  one  observation  which,  if  I 
have  not  already  tried  your  patience  too  far,  I  would  ask  your  leave 
to  make.  If  Burns  was  thus  great  among  poets,  it  was  not  because 
he  stood  higher  than  they  by  any  preeminence  of  a  creative  and  fertile 
imagination.  Original,  affluent,  and  active  his  imagination  certainly 
was,  and  it  was  always  kept  under  the  guidance  of  a  masculine  and 
vigorous  understanding;  but  it  is  the  feeling  which  lives  in  his  poems 
that  gives  them  their  supreme  mastery  over  the  minds  of  men.  Burns 
was  thus  great  because  God  breathed  into  him,  in  larger  measure 
than  into  other  men,  the  spirit  of  that  love  which  constitutes  his  own 
essence,  and  made  him,  more  than  other  men,  a  living  soul.  Burns 
was  great  by  the  greatness  of  his  sympathies  —  sympathies  acute 
and  delicate,  yet  large,  comprehensive,  boundless.  They  were  warm- 
est and  strongest  toward  those  of  his  own  kind,  yet  they  overflowed 
upon  all  sentient  beings:  upon  the  animal  in  his  stall,  upon  the  'wee, 
sleekit,  cowcrin',  timorous  bcastie,'  dislodged  from  her  autumnal 
covert;  upon  the  hare  wounded  by  the  sportsman;  upon  the  very 
field  flower,  overturned  by  his  share  and  crushed  among  the  stubble. 
And  in  all  this  we  feel  that  there  is  nothing  strained  or  exaggerated, 
nothing  affected  or  put  on,  nothing  childish  or  silly,  but  that  ail  is 
true,  genuine,  manly,  noble.  We  honor,  we  venerate  the  poet  while 
wc  read;  we  take  the  expression  of  these  sympathies  to  our  hearts, 
and  fold  it  in  our  memory  forever. 

"And  now,  having  .said  all  I  purposed  to  say  —  to  your  weariness, 
I  fear  —  I  proceed  to  give  out  the  first  regular  toast  in  which,  if  you 
do  not  heartily  join,  I  shall  wonder  why  you  are  here.     I  give  you 


234  ORAL  ENGLISH 

'The  Day  We  Celebrate'  —  a  day  'which  makes  the  whole  world 
kin,'  uniting  by  sympathetic  emotion  men  of  all  degrees,  in  every 
land,  in  honoring  the  memory  and  the  genius  of  Robert  Burns,  one 
of  'the  few,  the  immortal  names  that  were  not  born  to  die.'" 

2.   Portion  of  a  eulogy  of  Lincoln,  by  John  Philip  Newman: 

"Human  glory  is  often  fickle  as  the  winds,  and  transient  as  a 
summer  day;  but  Abraham  Lincoln's  place  in  history  is  assured. 
All  the  symbols  of  this  world's  admiration  are  his.  He  is  embalmed 
in  song,  recorded  in  history,  eulogized  in  panegyric,  cast  in  bronze, 
sculptured  in  marble,  painted  on  canvas,  enshrined  in  the  hearts  of 
his  countrymen,  and  lives  in  the  memories  of  mankind.  Some  men 
are  brilliant  in  their  times,  but  their  words  and  deeds  are  of  little 
worth  to  history;  but  his  mission  was  as  large  as  his  country,  vast 
as  humanity,  enduring  as  time.  Some  men  are  not  honored  by  their 
contemporaries,  and  die  neglected.  Here  is  one  more  honor,ed  than 
any  other  man  while  living,  more  revered  when  dying,  and  destined 
to  be  loved  to  the  last  syllable  of  recorded  time.  He  has  this  three- 
fold greatness  —  great  in  Hfe,  great  in  death,  great  in  the  history  of 
the  world.  Lincoln  will  grow  upon  the  attention  and  affections  of 
posterity,  because  he  saved  the  life  of  the  greatest  nation,  whose  ever 
widening  influence  is  to  bless  humanity.  Measured  by  this  standard, 
Lincoln  shall  live  in  history  from  age  to  age. 

"  Great  men  appear  in  groups,  and  in  groups  they  disappear  from 
the  vision  of  the  world;  but  we  do  not  love  or  hate  men  in  groups. 
We  speak  of  Gutenberg  and  his  coadjutors,  of  Washington  and  his 
generals,  of  Lincoln  and  his  cabinet ;  but  when  the  day  of  judgment 
comes,  we  crown  the  inventor  of  printing,  we  place  the  laurel  on  the 
brow  of  the  father  of  his  country,  and  the  chaplet  of  renown  upon 
the  head  of  the  savior  of  the  republic. 

"Some  men  are  great  from  the  littleness  of  their  surroundings; 
but  he  only  is  great  who  is  great  amid  greatness.  Lincoln  had  great 
associates  —  Seward,  the  sagacious  diplomatist ;  Chase,  the  eminent 
financier;  Stanton,  the  incomparable  Secretary  of  War,  —  with 
illustrious  senators  and  soldiers.  None  could  take  his  part  or  fill 
his  position. 

"Lincoln  stands  forth  on  the  page  of  history,  unique  in  his  char- 
acter, and  magnetic  in  his  individuality.     Like  Milton's  angel,  he 


READING    LESSON    XI  235 

was  an  original  conception.  He  was  raised  up  for  his  times.  He 
was  a  leader  of  leaders.  By  instinct  the  common  heart  trusted  him. 
He  was  of  the  people  and  for  the  people.  He  had  been  poor  and 
laborious;  but  greatness  did  not  change  the  tone  of  his  spirit  or 
lessen  the  sympathies  of  his  nature.  His  character  was  strangely 
sjTnmetrical.  He  was  temperate,  without  austerity;  brave,  without 
rashness;  constant,  \\-ithout  obstinacy.  Not  excepting  Washington, 
who  inherited  wealth  and  high  social  position,  Lincoln  is  the  fullest 
representative  American  in  our  national  annals.  He  had  touched 
every  round  in  the  human  ladder.  He  illustrated  the  possibilities 
of  our  citizenship.  We  are  not  ashamed  of  his  humble  origin.  We 
are  proud  of  his  greatness." 

3.  From  an  address  by  Booker  T.  Washington  at  the  opening  of 
the  Atlanta  Exposition: 

Mr.  Washington  in  V p  from  Slavery  describes  his  own  feelings 
and  the  circumstances  surrounding  the  delivery  of  the  speech  as 
follows:  "I  remembered  that  I  had  been  a  slave  —  it  was  easily 
possible  that  some  of  my  former  owners  might  be  present  to  hear  me 
speak.  I  knew,  too,  that  this  was  the  first  time  in  the  entire  history 
of  the  negro  that  a  member  of  my  race  had  been  asked  to  speak  from 
the  same  platform  with  while  Southern  men  and  women  on  any 
important  national  occasion.  When  I  arose  to  speak,  there  was 
considerable  cheering,  especially  from  the  colored  people.  As  I 
remember  it  now  the  thing  that  was  uppermost  in  my  mind  was  the 
desire  to  say  something  that  would  cement  the  friendship  of  the 
races  and  bring  about  hearty  cooperation  between  them.  .  .  .  The 
first  thing  that  I  remember,  after  I  finished  speaking,  was  that  Gov- 
ernor Bullock  rushed  across  the  platform  and  took  me  by  the  hand, 
and  that  others  did  the  same." 

Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen  of  the  Board  of  Directors  and  Citizens: 

One-third  of  the  population  of  the  South  is  of  the  Negro  race. 
No  enterprise  seeking  the  material,  civil,  or  moral  welfare  of  this 
section  can  disregard  this  element  of  our  population  and  reach  the 
highest  success.  I  but  convey  to  you,  Mr.  President  and  Directors, 
the  sentiment  of  the  masses  of  my  race  when  I  say  that  in  no  way 
have  the  value  and  manhood  of  the  American   Negro  been  more 


236  ORAL  ENGLISH 

fittingly  and  generously  recognized  than  by  the  managers  of  this 
magnificent  Exposition  at  every  stage  of  its  progress.  It  is  a  recog- 
nition that  will  do  more  to  cement  the  friendship  of  the  two  races 
than  any  occurrence  since  the  dawn  of  our  freedom. 

Not  only  this,  but  the  opportunity  here  afforded  will  awaken 
among  us  a  new  era  of  industrial  progress.  Ignorant  and  inexperi- 
enced, it  is  not  strange  that  in  the  first  years  of  our  new  life  we  began 
at  the  top  instead  of  at  the  bottom;  that  a  seat  in  Congress  or  the 
State  legislature  was  more  sought  than  real  estate  or  industrial  skill; 
that  the  political  convention  or  stump  speaking  had  more  attractions 
than  starting  a  dairy,  farm,  or  truck  garden. 

A  ship  lost  at  sea  for  many  days  suddenly  sighted  a  friendly  vessel. 
From  the  mast  of  the  unfortunate  vessel  was  seen  a  signal,  "Water, 
water;  we  die  of  thirst!"  The  answer  from  the  friendly  vessel  at 
once  came  back,  "  Cast  down  your  bucket  where  you  are."  A  second 
time  the  signal,  "Water,  water;  send  us  water!"  ran  up  from  the 
distressed  vessel,  and  was  answered,  "Cast  down  your  bucket  where 
you  are."  And  a  third  and  fourth  signal  for  water  was  answered, 
"Cast  down  your  bucket  where  you  are."  The  captain  of  the  dis- 
tressed vessel,  at  last  heeding  the  injunction,  cast  down  his  bucket, 
and  it  came  up  full  of  fresh  sparkling  water  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  River.  To  those  of  my  race  who  depend  on  bettering  their 
condition  in  a  foreign  land"  or  who  underestimate  the  importance  of 
cultivating  friendly  relations  with  the  Southern  white  man,  who  is 
their  next-door  neighbor,  I  would  say:  "Cast  down  your  bucket 
where  you  are"  —  cast  it  down  in  making  friends  in  every  manly 
way  of  the  people  of  aQ  races  by  whom  we  are  surrounded. 

Cast  it  down  in  agriculture,  mechanics,  in  commerce,  in  domestic 
service,  and  in  the  professions.  And  in  this  connection  it  is  well  to 
bear  in  mind  that  whatever  other  sins  the  South  may  be  called  to 
bear,  when  it  comes  to  business,  pure  and  simple,  it  is  in  the  South 
that  the  Negro  is  given  a  man's  chanqe  in  the  commercial  world,  and 
in  nothing  is  this  Exposition  more  eloquent  than  in  emphasizing  this 
chance.  Our  greatest  danger  is  that  in  the  great  leap  from  slavery 
to  freedom  we  may  overlook  the  fact  that  the  masses  of  us  are  to  live 
by  the  productions  of  our  hands,  and  fail  to  keep  in  mind  that  we 
shall  prosper  in  proportion  as  we  learn  to  dignify  and  glorify  common 
labor  and  put  brains  and  skill  into  the  common  occupations  of  life; 


READING    LESSON    XI  237 

shall  prosper  in  proportion  as  we  learn  to  draw  the  line  between  the 
superficial  and  the  substantial,  the  ornamental  gewgaws  of  life  and 
the  useful.  No  race  can  prosper  till  it  learns  that  there  is  as  much 
dignity  in  tilling  a  field  as  in  writing  a  poem.  It  is  at  the  bottom  of 
life  we  must  begin,  and  not  at  the  top.  Nor  should  we  permit  our 
grievances  to  overshadow  our  opportunities. 

To  those  of  the  white  race  who  look  to  the  incoming  of  those  of 
foreign  birth  and  strange  tongue  and  habits  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
South,  were  I  permitted  I  would  repeat  what  I  say  to  my  own  race, 
"Cast  down  your  bucket  where  you  are."  Cast  it  down  among  the 
eight  millions  of  Negroes  whose  habits  you  know,  whose  fidelity  and 
love  you  have  tested  in  days  when  to  have  proved  treacherous  meant 
the  ruin  of  your  firesides.  Cast  down  your  bucket  among  these 
people  who  have,  without  strikes  and  labor  wars,  tilled  your  fields, 
cleared  your  forests,  builded  your  railroads  and  cities,  and  brought 
forth  treasures  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  and  helped  make  possible 
this  magnificent  representation  of  the  progress  of  the  South.  Casting 
down  your  bucket  among  my  people,  helping  and  encouraging  them 
as  you  are  doing  on  these  grounds  to  education  of  head,  hand,  and 
heart,  you  will  find  that  they  will  buy  your  surplus  land,  make  blossom 
the  waste  places  in  your  fields,  and  run  your  factories.  While  doing 
this,  you  can  be  sure  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  that  you  and  your 
families  will  be  surrounded  by  the  most  patient,  faithful,  law-abiding, 
and  unresentful  people  that  the  world  has  seen.  As  we  have  proved 
our  loyalty  to  you  in  the  past,  in  nursing  your  children,  watching  by 
the  sick-bed  of  your  mothers  and  fathers,  and  often  following  ihcm 
with  tear-dimmed  eyes  to  their  graves,  so  in  the  future,  in  our  humble 
way,  we  shall  stand  by  you  with  a  devotion  that  no  foreigner  can 
approach,  ready  to  lay  down  our  lives,  if  need  be,  in  defense  of  yours, 
interlacing  our  industrial,  commercial,  civil,  and  religious  life  with 
yours  in  a  way  that  shall  make  the  interests  of  both  races  one.  In 
all  things  that  are  purely  social,  we  can  be  as  separate  as  the  fingers, 
yet  as  the  hand  in  all  things  essential  to  mutual  progress. 

There  is  no  defense  or  security  for  any  of  us  except  in  the  highest 
intelligence  and  development  of  all.  If  anywhere  there  are  efforts 
tenrling  to  curtail  the  fullest  growth  of  the  Negro,  let  these  efforts 
be  turned  into  stimulating,  encouraging,  and  making  him  the  most 
useful  and  intelligent  citizen.     Effort  or  means  so  invested  will  pay 


238  ORAL   ENGLISH 

a  thousand  per  cent  interest.     These  efforts  will  be  twice  blessed  — 
"blessing  him  that  gives  and  him  that  takes." 

There  is  no  escape  through  law  of  man  or  God  from  the  inevitable: 

The  laws  of  changeless  justice  bind 

Oppressor  with  oppressed; 
And  close  as  sin  and  suffering  joined 

We  march  to  fate  abreast. 

Nearly  sixteen  millions  of  hands  will  aid  you  in  puUing  the  load 
upward,  or  they  will  pull  against  you  the  load  downward.  We  shall 
constitute  one-third  and  more  of  the  ignorance  and  crime  of  the 
South,  or  one-third  its  intelligence  and  progress;  we  shall  contribute 
one-third  to  the  business  and  industrial  prosperity  of  the  South,  or 
we  shall  prove  a  veritable  body  of  death,  stagnating,  depressing, 
retarding  every  effort  to  advance  the  body  politic. 

Gentlemen  of  the  Exposition,  as  we  present  to  you  our  humble 
effort  at  an  exhibition  of  our  progress,  you  must  not  expect  over- 
much. Starting  thirty  years  ago  with  ownership  here  and  there  in  a 
few  quilts  and  pumpkins  and  chickens  (gathered  from  miscellaneous 
sources),  remember  the  path  that  has  led  from  these  to  the  inventions 
and  production  of  agricultural  implements,  buggies,  steam-engines, 
newspapers,  books,  statuary,  carving,  paintings,  the  management  of 
drug  stores  and  banks,  has  not  been  trodden  without  contact  with 
thorns  and  thistles.  While  we  take  pride  in  what  we  exhibit  as  a 
result  of  our  independent  efforts,  we  do  not  for  a  moment  forget  that 
our  part  in  this  exhibition  would  fall  far  short  of  your  expectations 
but  for  the  constant  help  that  has  come  to  our  educational  life,  not 
only  from  the  Southern  States,  but  especially  from  Northern  philan- 
thropists, who  have  made  their  gifts  a  constant  stream  of  blessing  and 
encouragement. 

The  wisest  among  my  race  understand  that  the  agitation  of  ques- 
tions of  social  equality  is  the  extremest  folly,  and  that  progress  in 
the  enjoyment  of  all  the  privileges  that  will  come  to  us  must  be  the 
result  of  severe  and  constant  struggle  rather  than  of  artificial  forcing. 
No  race  that  has  anything  to  contribute  to  the  markets  of  the  world 
is  long  in  any  degree  ostracized.  It  is  important  and  right  that  all 
privileges  of  the  law  be  ours,  but  it  is  vastly  more  important  that  we 
be  prepared  for  the  exercise  of  these  privileges.     The  opportunity 


READING    LESSON    XI  239 

I0  earn  a  dollar  in  a  factoty  just  now  is  worth  infinitely  more  than 
the  opportunity  to  spend  a  dollar  in  an  opera-house. 

In  conclusion,  may  I  repeat  that  nothing  in  thirty  years  has  given 
us  more  hope  and  encouragement,  and  drawn  us  so  near  to  you  of  the 
white  race,  as  this  opportunity  olYered  by  the  Exposition;  and  here 
bending,  as  it  were,  over  the  altar  that  represents  the  struggles  of 
your  race  and  mine,  both  starling  practically  empty-handed  three 
decades  ago,  I  pledge  that  in  your  effort  to  work  out  the  great  and 
intricate  problem  which  God  has  laid  at  the  doors  of  the  South,  you 
shall  have  at  aU  times  the  patient,  sympathetic  help  of  my  race;  only 
let  this  be  constantly  in  mind,  that,  while  from  representations  in 
these  buildings  of  the  product  of  field,  of  forest,  of  mine,  of  factor}', 
letters,  and  art,  much  good  will  come,  yet  far  above  and  beyond 
material  benefits  will  be  that  higher  good,  that,  let  us  pray  God,  will 
come  in  a  blotting  out  of  sectional  differences  and  racial  animosities 
and  suspicions,  in  a  determination  to  administer  absolute  justice,  in 
a  willing  obedience  among  all  classes  to  the  mandates  of  the  law. 
This,  this,  coupled  with  our  material  prosperity,  will  bring  into  our 
beloved  South  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth. 

4.  Address  of  Judge  Peter  J.  Shields  at  the  Dedication  of  the  New 
College  of  Agriculture,  November  20,  191 2;  from  the  University  of 
California  Chronicle,  Vol.  15,  p.  113: 

It  would  be  impossible,  in  the  few  moments  which  the  circum- 
stances permit,  for  me  to  fittingly  express  the  significance  of  this  hour. 
It  is  the  culmination  of  long  years  of  waiting,  of  the  slow  growth  of  a 
Western  civilization;  the  fruit  of  fine  hopes- and  patient,  unselfish 
efforts.  It  is  the  beginning  of  a  larger  effort  to  teach  men  the  sound 
principles  which  have  stood  the  test  of  experience  and  which  in  all 
ages  have  given  security  and  happiness  to  the  peoples  that  have 
practiced  them.  ...  I  should  like  to  speak  a  few  words  in  praise  of 
those  who  have  helped  in  this  work,  but  ihcy  do  not  need  it.  It  is 
enough  that  their  wish  has  been  realized;  thai  the  truth  for  which 
they  labored,  to-day  has  received  this  high  sanction.  I  should  like  to 
speak  of  agriculture  as  one  of  the  noblest  of  all  occupations,  hut  it 
is  in  submis.sion  to  that  truth  lh;it  we  arc  here  and  it  docs  not  need 
expression. 

We  have  contended  warmly  over  what  was  education,  as  to  what 


240  ORAL  ENGLISH 

were  its  aids  and  its  agencies.  Some  of  us  have  doubted  whether 
men  might  be  educated  through  things,  through  a  knowledge  of  nature 
and  the  practice  of  her  laws.  It  would  be  interesting  to-day  to  take 
up  that  discussion,  but  it  would  be  fruitless.  That  cause  has  been 
tried,  and  to-day,  in  monumental  form,  we  record  the  verdict. 

It  will  be  enough  to  point  to  the  most  tangible  lesson  of  history 
that  agricultural  industry  has  been  the  surest  foundation  of  a  state 
and  the  extent  to  which  it  was  fostered  has  been  the  measure  of  a 
people's  progress. 

Mysterious  Egypt,  of  which  we  know  only  that  it  was  great,  at 
the  height  of  its  development  made  slaves  of  its  farmers.  Magnificent 
India  founded  its  future  upon  agriculturalists  whom  she  condemned 
to  a  degraded  caste.  Rome  plundered  and  oppressed  her  farmers  to 
a  condition  of  poverty  and  discredit.  They  are  all  gone,  and  volumes 
have  been  written  in  an  effort  to  trace  the  cause.  It  could  be  written 
in  a  sentence.  They  built  their  societies  from  the  top,  and  devoted 
their  efforts  to  the  worship  of  false  social  quantities.  That  we  should 
honor  agriculture  is  the  lesson  of  their  dread  experience.  But  we 
cannot  do  this  as  a  duty;  it  must  spring  from  an  honest  estimate. 
This  building  stands  for  this  appreciation  and  respect.  It  will  help 
us  to  honor  agriculture,  through  making  it  honorable.  It  will  unfold 
its  mysteries,  it  will  exhibit  its  beauties,  it  will  develop  its  strength 
tiU  an  admiring  and  respectful  nation  will  proclaim  its  primacy. 

This  country  was  founded  upon  the  principle  that  labor  is  honor- 
able, and  we  made  agriculture  our  chief  pursuit.  We  have  grown 
in  devotion  to  the  truth.  We  have  got  our  vigor  from  the  soil.  Most 
of  our  ablest  men  have  been  countr>'-bred.  Our  distinctive  institu- 
tions were  nourished  there.  Its  ideals  have  colored  and  formed  our 
policies.  In  recent  years,  this  dominance  has  been  threatened  and 
our  problems  have  multiplied.     This  way  lies  their  correction. 

I  will  not  attempt  any  elaboration  of  this  structure's  significance. 
It  stands  as  a  monument  to  the  new  agriculture,  the  agriculture  of 
thought  and  knowledge  which  has  come  to  redeem  the  industry  and 
to  secure  for  it  its  proportionate  place  in  our  civilization.  It  means 
the  beauty  and  the  strength  of  the  out-of-doors.  It  means  the  peace 
and  solitude  where  men  think  profoundly  and  adhere  tenaciously, 
where  strong  characters  are  formed  and  high  purposes  are  nourished. 
It  means  food  and  raiment  and  shelter;  the  primal  things  that  go  to 


READING    LESSON    XI  241 

the  roots  of  life,  and  supply  the  basis  of  all  our  institutions.  It 
stands  for  toil  and  proclaims  the  honest  eminence  of  useful  labor. 
It  stands  for  simphcity  as  the  eternal  measure  of  permanence.  It 
calls  men  out  from  the  crowded  places  to  where  the  horizon  is  wide, 
where  the  majesty  of  nature  prompts  man  to  its  imitation. 

We  are  multiphing  ver>'  rapidly  the  complications  of  our  civi- 
lization and  we  ask  ourselves  to  what  limits  we  may  safely  go  in  the 
direction  we  call  progress.  The  answer  is  here,  that  we  cannot  get 
far  away  from  the  standards  this  structure  proclaims,  from  the 
countr>^-bred  man,  the  man  who  is  constantly  measuring  his  work 
with  the  work  of  nature  and  thus  keeping  it  true.  Life  may  become 
very  fine  and  high,  but  it  must  remain  natural  to  keep  its  strength. 
We  should  look  at  this  hall  as  a  beacon  lighting  the  way  in  which  we 
may  go  in  safety.  It  will  stand  a  perpetual  reproach  to  frivolity, 
artificiality,  and  idleness;  it  will  supply  an  antidote  for  the  depend- 
ence of  the  submerged,  and  for  the  arrogance  of  the  over-fortunate. 
It  proclaims  the  farmer  the  type  man  of  America;  it  admonishes  us 
to  train  him  —  but  keep  him  a  farmer. 

Agriculture  is  not  only  an  industr>%  it  is  a  life.  This  building 
stands  for  the  preservation  of  that  life,  for  its  elevation  and  such  a 
distribution  of  its  ideals  as  \\-ill  flavor  the  whole  life  of  our  country. 

This  is  indeed  a  great  day  for  California.  We  are  taking  stock 
of  our  condition.  \\'hen  we  find  a  people  engaged  as  we  are  to-day, 
met  in  the  spirit  in  which  we  are  met,  wc  know  that  they  are  going 
forward  on  the  broad  highway  of  life,  that  their  estimate  of  social 
values  is  true,  and  that  they  have  avoided  the  temptations  to  which 
other  nations  have  succumbed. 

Different  states  or  societies  at  different  times  have  built  monu- 
ments to  the  principles  they  worshipped;  to  express  their  faiths  or  to 
point  their  hopes.  A  mystic  race  built  the  Pyramids.  To-day  these 
stand,  lonesome  sentinels  in  the  desert,  typifj-ing  nothing  save  that 
races  not  soundly  founded  will  perish.  Tamerlane  built  a  structure 
of  skulls  in  testimony  of  his  faith  in  war  and  its  all-conquering  power. 
It  crumbled  scarcely  as  fast  as  his  leadership,  his  empire,  his  people, 
and  his  race;  as  the  false  princii)les  u[)on  which  he  had  based  the 
success  of  his  efforts.  The  Pagan  races  creeled  temples  to  earth-made 
gods,  but  these  pe()i)le  vanished,  their  gofls  are  forgotten,  their  temples 
have  disappeared  or  their  fragments  remain  in  proof  that  what  is 


242  ORAL   ENGLISH 

not  true  cannot  be  perpetuated.  The  triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans 
serve  only  to  remind  us  that  the  judgment  which  called  them  such  was 
mistaken,  and  that  a  race  devoted  to  conquest  and  oppression  will 
disappear.  The  monuments  upon  the  torture  fields  of  Smithfield 
and  Salem  are  the  tombstones  of  dead  institutions. 

The  monument  we  have  built  here  was  built  in  another  spirit. 
It  was  built  in  submission  to  an  all-prevading  law  —  built  in  harmony 
with  nature.  It  was  built  to  serve  human  need  and  not  the  greed  or 
vanity  of  privilege.  It  was  built  in  devotion  to  knowledge  and  in- 
dustry, the  everlasting  things.  It  will  survive,  in  the  things  it  stands 
for,  while  the  world  lasts.  Tens  of  millions  of  people  will  come  to 
this  fair  land  to  live  here  a  more  involved  and  elaborated  life  than  the 
world  has  elsewhere  known.  If  they  keep  their  eyes  upon  this  temple 
and  walk  in  its  shadow,  if  they  practice  the  truths  for  which  it  stands, 
their  society  will  live  as  long. 

To-day  we  reafiirm  that  faith.  Let  us  rededicate  ourselves  to  the 
efforts  which  have  brought  about  this  hour.  Let  us  build  this  struc- 
ture higher  and  broader  until  its  spirit  is  in  every  heart  and  until 
every  hearthstone  in  our  country  becomes  part  of  its  foundation. 

5.  Portion  of  an  address  at  the  Dedication  of  the  Doe  Library 
Building  of  the  University  of  California,  by  the  Librarian,  Joseph  C. 
Rowell.  Taken  from  the  University  of  California  Chronicle,  Vol.  14, 
p.  351.  Mr.  Rowell  devoted  more  than  half  of  his  speech  to  an 
interesting  retrospect  of  the  gradual  growth  of  the  library.  The 
following  is  an  extract: 

"The  fortunes  of  the  library  inseparably  followed  those  of  the 
University.  Up  under  the  eaves  of  Brayton  Hall  were  arranged  some 
few  hundreds  of  books  on  history,  literature,  and  philosophy,  together 
with  well  thumbed  classics,  and  dust  lay  deep  on  theological  and 
scientific  treatises  of  honorably  ancient  dates. 

"How  the  aspect  of  the  place  brightened  when  in  187 1  a  large  gift 
of  modern  books  arrived,  brilliant  in  gilded  calf,  fresh  from  the  pub- 
lishers! Then  students  abandoned  the  chess  table  and  climbed  up- 
ward to  consult  the  eighth  edition  of  Brittanica,  to  open  dainty 
volumes  of  poets,  to  lay  the  foundation  of  an  essay  on  Emerson,  or 
to  spend  an  indolent,  happy  hour  over  Bulwer  or  Thackeray." 


READING    LESSON    XI  243 

6.  Columbian  Oration  delivered  at  Dedicatory  Ceremonies  of 
the  World's  Fair,  Chicago,  Oct.  21,  1892,  by  Chauncey  M.  Depew. 

Introduction: 

"This  day  belongs  not  to  America  alone,  but  to  the  world.  The 
results  of  the  event  it  commemorates  are  the  heritage  of  the  peoples 
of  every  race  and  clime.  We  celebrate  the  emancipation  of  man. 
The  preparation  was  the  work  of  almost  countless  centuries;  the 
realization  was  the  revelation  of  one.  The  Cross  on  Calvary  was 
hope;  the  cross  raised  on  San  Salvador  was  opportunity.  But  for 
the  first,  Columbus  would  never  have  sailed;  but  for  the  second, 
there  would  have  been  no  place  for  the  planting,  the  nurture,  and  the 
expansion  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  .  .  .  The  exhibition  of  arts 
and  sciences,  of  industries  and  inventions,  of  education  and  civiliza- 
tion which  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  will  here  present,  and  to 
which,  through  its  Chief  Magistrate,  it  invites  all  nations,  condenses 
and  displays  the  flower  and  fruitage  of  this  transcendent  miracle." 

The  body  might  be  summarized  as  follows: 

Histor>^:  Feudalism,  monarchy,  new  learning  all  prepared  the  way, 
but  freedom  could  develop  no  farther  on  the  old  continent. 
The  event  must  he. 

The  Man:  Columbus  was  especially  prepared.  Importance  of  Isa- 
bella. 

Result:  Immigration  has  resulted  in  a  loyal  foreign  population.  This 
has  become  a  land  of  opportunity. 

Conclusion: 

"All  hail,  Columbus,  discoverer,  dreamer,  hero,  apostle!  We 
here,  of  every  race  and  country,  recognize  the  horizon  which  bounded 
his  vision  and  the  infinite  scope  of  his  genius.  The  voice  of  gratitude 
and  prai.sc  for  all  the  blessings  which  have  been  showered  upon  man- 
kind by  his  adventure  is  limited  to  110  language,  but  is  ultered  in  every 
tongue.  Neither  marble  nor  brass  can  filly  form  his  statue.  Conti- 
nents are  his  monuments,  and  unnumbered  millions,  present  and  to 
come,  who  enjoy  in  their  liberty  and  ha[Ji)iness  the  fruits  of  his  faith, 
will  reverently  guard  and  preserve,  from  century  to  century,  his  name 
and  fame." 


244  ORAL   ENGLISH 

7.  Parts  of  an  address  by  Chauncey  M.  Depew  in  laying  the 
corner  stone  of  the  New  York  Athletic  Club: 

Introduction: 

"The  laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  what  is  to  be  the  most  complete, 
commodious  and  perfect  home  of  athletics  in  the  world  is  in  harmony 
with  the  times.     It  is  a  significant  note  of  progress  and  prosperity." 

He  then  refers  to,  the  large  place  which  athletics  held  in  Greek  life 
and  the  contempt  with  which  it  was  regarded  in  our  own  country  fifty 
years  ago.  He  commends  it  as  an  antidote  for  the  mental  and  physi- 
cal disorders  which  grew  out  of  the  strenuous  life  of  the  19th  century. 

Conclusion: 

"So  the  healthful  conditions  of  manly  athletics  have  become  the 
best  helpers  to  the  preacher,  the  best  assistants  to  the  doctor,  the 
best  workers  for  the  temperance  societies,  the  best  correctors  of 
private  morals,  and  the  best  aids  to  good  citizenship.  .  .  .  Upon  this 
corner  stone  let  arise  a  home  for  honorable  athletics,  a  home  which 
shall  frown  on  the  brutality  of  some  of  its  forms;  a  home  that  shall 
encourage  every  kind  of  healthful  sport." 


PART   IV— SPEECHES    FOR   SPECIAL 

OCCASIONS 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE   ORATION 

Introduction.  —  Oratory  is  the  highest  form  of  public 
speech.  Henry  Ward  Beecher  says  that  oratory  "is  the 
consecration  of  the  whole  man  to  the  noblest  purpose 
to  which  one  can  address  himself  —  the  education  and 
inspiration  of  his  fellowmen."  The  persuasive  speech 
discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter  may  be  called  an 
oration  when  it  has  the  following  characteristics:  (i) 
dignity  of  theme,  (2)  elegance  of  diction,  and  (3)  impres- 
siveness  of  delivery.  If  all  of  these  elements  are  necessary, 
it  is  evident  that  success  in  oratory  requires  previous 
practice  in  other  forms  of  public  address.  R.  C.  Ring- 
wait  says,  "The  art  of  the  actor  and  reader  is  joined 
with  that  of  the  man  of  letters,  the  philosopher,  and 
statesman  in  producing  the  great  orator." 

The  oration  differs  from  the  debate  in  that  it  deals 
mainly  with  ideas  and  facts  which  are  undisputed.  "The 
audience,"  says  Professor  Sears,  "expects  to  have  its  con- 
victions strengthened  rather  than  changed."  For  this 
reason,  argument  takes  a  subordinate  place  in  the  oration. 
Certain  kinds  of  argument  can  be  used  effectively:  for 
example,  historic  parallel,  analogy,  dilemma,  and  reduc- 
tion to  absurdity;  but  the  j)red(jminating  forms  of  dis- 
course  are  description,   narration,   and   exposition.     For 


246  ORAL   ENGLISH 

this  reason,  the  orator  can  appeal  more  powerfully  to 
the  feelings  than  can  the  debater.  His  ideas  are  of  such 
a  character  that  they  meet  with  no  opposition  from  the 
intellects  of  his  hearers  and  he  is  therefore  free  to  address 
himself  to  their  hearts. 

This  chapter  will  deal  with  such  orations  as  might  be 
delivered  (i)  in  honor  of  a  person,  (2)  in  honor  of  an  event, 
and  (3)  at  commencement  exercises. 

I.   Oration  in  Honor  of  a  Person 

Eulogy  or  Memorial  Tribute.  —  The  oration  in  honor 
of  a  person  is  called  a  eulogy  when  it  is  delivered  at  the 
anniversary  of  either  the  birth  or  death  of  some  great 
character,  or  at  the  dedication  of  a  monument  in  his  honor. 
If  it  is  delivered  immediately  after  the  death  of  a  promi- 
nent or  beloved  fellow  citizen,  it  is  often  called  a  memorial 
tribute. 

More  than  Biographical.  —  Although  a  eulogy  deals 
with  biographical  material,  it  should  be  more  than  a 
mere  biography.  The  speaker  should  try  to  discover  the 
essence  of  the  man's  work,  what  he  stood  for,  and  what  is 
likely  to  be  his  place  in  history.  He  should  then  use 
historical  facts  to  show  how  this  work  was  developed  and 
accomphshed  in  his  life.  Let  us  notice  a  few  examples. 
Alfred  Austin,  at  the  500th  anniversary  of  the  death  of 
Chaucer,  treats  of  the  old  English  poet  as  the  embodiment 
of  English  character.  Honorable  George  F.  Hoar,  in  his 
eulogy  on  Webster,  emphasizes  his  greatest  achievement 
as  that  of  arousing  in  the  American  people  a  spirit  of 
nationality.  Bryant,  in  his  tribute  to  Burns,  shows  that 
the  chief  source  of  his  power  over  men  was  his  compre- 
hensive sympathy.     Such  treatment  of  the  facts  is  much 


THE    ORATION  247 

more  interesting  and  impressive  than  a  simple  historical 
narrative,  and  it  embodies  that  fundamental  principle  of 
unity  which  is  essential  to  a  work  of  art. 

Should  the  Whole  Truth  be  Told?  —  The  character 
portrait  should  be  faithful,  but  faithful  to  the  best  phases 
of  character  rather  than  to  the  worst.  Strong  points  are 
brought  into  relief  by  their  nearness  to  the  weak  points, 
but  the  right  proportion  must  be  maintained.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  speaker  to  lind  and  present  that  ruling  purpose, 
ambition,  or  principle  which  exists  in  every  great  charac- 
ter; for  the  purpose  of  a  eulogy  is  not  only  to  pay  tribute 
to  the  dead,  but  also  to  hold  up  virtue  in  such  a  way  as 
to  furnish  inspiration  to  the  living. 

II.   Oration  in  Honor  of  an  Event 

Orations  delivered  in  honor  of  an  event  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  (i)  those  which  celebrate  past  events 
and  (2)  those  which  celebrate  events  of  present  or  future 
significance. 

Commemorative  Address.  —  An  oration  which  cele- 
brates a  past  event  is  called  a  commemorative  address.  It 
is  usually  delivered  in  connection  with  an  anniversary 
celebration.  It  may  occur  at  the  opening  of  a  World's 
Fair.  (See  Columbian  Oration,  Reading  Lesson  XI.) 
Again,  it  may  accompany  the  unveiling  of  a  monument  or 
statue.  (Webster's  Bunker  Hill  Address.)  It  is  some- 
times given  at  a  dinner.  This  is  likely  to  be  the  case  if 
the  foundation  of  a  society  or  of  a  newspaper  is  the  object 
of  the  celebration. 

The  commemorative  speech  is  always  historical  in  its 
nature.  College  anniversary  speeches,  for  example,  tell 
of  the  founder,  the  famous  faculty  members  and  graduates, 


248  ORAL  ENGLISH 

and  the  services  of  the  institution  to  the  pubhc.  Chaun- 
cey  M.  Depew,  at  the  celebration  of  the  50th  anniversary 
of  the  New  York  Tribune^  discusses  the  value  of  the  parti- 
san newspaper  as  compared  with  that  of  the  independent 
press,  and  then  enters  into  the  history  of  the  Tribune, 
its  great  men,  its  growth,  and  its  accomplishments. 

The  highest  form  of  commemorative  oration  is,  how- 
ever, something  more  than  a  narrative.  The  speaker 
should  dwell  upon  the  significance  of  the  event  as  well  as 
upon  the  event  itself;  that  is,  he  should  emphasize  the 
importance  and  meaning  of  the  event  in  its  effect  upon 
later  history.  For  example,  when  the  Statue  of  Liberty 
was  presented  by  the  French  people  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  on  the  looth  anniversary  of  American 
independence,  Mr.  Depew,  who  delivered  the  oration 
at  the  unveiling  of  the  monument,  took  as  his  theme 
the  importance  of  the  French  alliance  as  a  factor  in  the 
success  of  the  American  Revolution.  If  the  event  is  one 
of  which  the  people  are  proud,  the  speaker  should  draw 
from  it  some  lesson.  If  it  has  brought  pain  to  indi- 
viduals but  gain  to  the  group  or  nation,  the  best  treat- 
ment is  that  which  inspires  the  listeners  to  a  similar  noble 
sacrifice. 

Dedicatory  Address.  ^  The  oration  which  celebrates 
an  event  of  present  or  future  significance  usually  takes 
the  form  of  a  dedicatory  address.  It  may  accompany 
the  laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  a  public  building, 
or  the  opening  of  a  park,  of  an  athletic  field,  or  of  an 
exposition. 

The  nature  of  the  material  will  vary  with  the  subject 
and  the  circumstances.  It  is  not  inappropriate  to  speak 
of  the  advantage  or  beauty  of  whatever  is  dedicated;   the 


THE    ORATION  249 

devotion  of  those  who  have  been  leaders  in  the  enter- 
prise; or  the  history  of  the  dithculties  that  have  been 
overcome.  The  main  theme  of  the  address,  however, 
should  direct  the  minds  of  the  audience  to  some  noble 
ideal  or  purpose  connected  with  the  object  dedicated. 
To  dedicate  means  to  set  apart,  or  consecrate  to  some  good 
purpose.  In  every  great  dedicatory  address,  therefore, 
the  speaker  has  made  use  of  his  opportunity  to  point  out 
the  significance  of  the  occasion  and  to  express  hope  and 
obligation.  A  few  illustrations  will  perhaps  make  this 
point  more  clear.  Judge  Shields  dwells  on  the  relation 
between  the  study  of  scientific  agriculture  and  the  welfare 
of  a  nation.  Booker  T.  Washington  takes  the  oppor- 
tunity to  point  out  to  each  race  in  the  South  its  need  of 
the  other  race.  Lincoln,  in  the  greatest  of  dedicatory 
addresses,  emphasizes  the  obligation  of  the  living  to 
carry  on  the  work  of  those  who  fought  and  died  on  the 
field  of  Gettysburg. 

III.   Commencement  Oration 

Nature.  —  The  oration  delivered  at  commencement  ex- 
ercises may  be  called  a  platform  oration.  It  differs  from 
the  eulogy  and  the  dedicatory  address  in  that  the  subject 
matter  does  not  grow  out  of  the  occasion.  The  orator, 
chosen  for  high  standing  in  his  class,  merely  represents 
his  school  and  shows  the  best  of  what  its  methods  arc 
producing  in  the  way  of  liberal  culture. 

Choice  of  a  Subject.  —  The  choice  of  a  subject  is  of 
consixierablc  importance.  The  topic  should  be  a  live  one. 
It  should  be  either  one  which  is  occupying  the  j)ubHc 
mind  or  one  upon  which  the  speaker  feels  that  something 
needs  to  be  said.     At  the  same  time  it  should  not  be  a 


2  50  ORAL   ENGLISH 

theme  that  is  Hkely  to  arouse  violent  antagonism.  Such 
a  theme  would  be  out  of  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the 
occasion,  which  is  one  of  rejoicing  and  congratulation. 
Furthermore,  the  subject  should  be  suited  to  the  speaker; 
that  is,  it  should  arouse  his  interest  and  grip  his  feelings, 
and,  if  possible,  it  should  be  about  something  with  which 
he  has  come  in  contact  in  real  life  as  well  as  in  books. 

Treatment.  —  Very  few  suggestions  can  be  made  as 
to  treatment,  since  each  subject  furnishes  its  own  difh- 
culties  and  opportunities.  A  speaker  may  link  an  instruc- 
tive theme  to  the  life  of  a  man  who  is  not  too  generally 
known.  A  theme  of  this  character  should  be  handled 
in  much  the  same  way  as  a  eulogy.  Professor  Pelsma 
suggests  a  plan  whereby  the  speaker  presents  a  problem 
and  offers  a  solution.  As  he  says,  "It  is  a  poor  physician 
who  diagnoses  a  disease  without  prescribing  the  remedy." 
It  is  certainly  true  that,  if  unfortunate  conditions  are 
pictured,  their  presentation  should  be  accompanied  by 
a  suggestion  of  the  remedy,  else  the  depressing  effect  of 
the  speech  will  mar  the  joy  of  the  occasion.  Again,  the 
treatment  should  not  be  too  general.  There  should  be 
an  abundance  of  concrete  material.  As  one  authority  has 
expressed  it,  "Be  full  of  your  subject;  then  force  it  into  a 
narrow  groove." 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  studied  the 
nature  and  best  method  of  treatment  of  (i)  an  oration  in 
honor  of  a  person,  (2)  an  oration  in  honor  of  an  event,  and 
(3)  a  commencement  oration. 


THE    ORATION 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

The  Oration 

Introduction. 

I.   Nature  of  oratory  in  general. 

A.  Beecher's  definition. 

B.  Characteristics. 

C.  Previous  training  —  Ringwalt. 

II.   Difference  between  the  oration  and  the  debate. 

A.  Sears. 

B.  Kinds  of  argument  which  may  be  used. 

C.  Appeal  to  feelings. 
III.   Advance  summary. 

Body. 

I.   Oration  in  honor  of  a  person. 

A .  Eulogy  or  memorial  tribute. 

I.   When  so-called. 

B.  More  than  biographical. 

1.  Central  thought. 

2.  E.xamples. 

(a)  Chaucer. 
ib)  Webster, 
(c)    Burns. 

3.  Merits. 

C.  Should  the  whole  truth  be  told? 

1.  Faithful  to  the  best. 

2.  Purpose  of  a  eulogy. 
II.   Oration  in  honor  of  an  event. 

A.   Commemorative  address. 

1.  Occasions  for. 

2.  Historical. 

{a)    College  anniversaries. 
{b)    New  York  Tribune. 

3.  More  than  a  narrative. 

{a)   Significance  —  Statue  of  Liberty. 
(6)    Lesson. 


251 


252  ORAL  ENGLISH 

II.       B.    Dedicatory  address. 

1.  Occasions  for. 

2.  Nature  of  material. 

{a)   Thoughts  which  may  be  appropriate. 
(6)    Character  of  the  main  them^. 
(i)   Judge  Shields. 

(2)  Booker  Washington. 

(3)  Lincohi. 
III.    Commencement  oration. 

A.  Nature. 

1.  How  it  differs  from  the  eulogy  and  dedicatory 

address. 

2.  Purpose. 

B.  Choice  of  a  subject. 

1.  AHve. 

2.  In  harmony  with  the  occasion. 

3.  Suited  to  the  speaker. 

C.  Treatment. 

1.  Biographical. 

2.  A  problem  and  its  solution. 

3.  Narrow. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Choose  any  eulogy  which  is  accessible  from  the 
list  given  in  Appendix  VIII.  Read  it  and  be  able  to  give  to  the  class 
a  summary  of  its  contents. 

Exercise  III.  —  Imagine  that  your  student  body,  your  literary 
society,  or  some  other  organization  has  planned  to  devote  one  meeting 
to  the  recognition  of  some  great  character  and  that  you  have  been 
asked  to  deliver  the  oration.  Look  up  material  in  the  Encyclopedia, 
Who's  Who,  Readers  Guide,  and  the  card  catalogue.  For  sug- 
gestions as  to  subjects  consult  the  "List  of  Days  for  Anniversary 
Celebrations"  (Appendix  IX).  The  student  will  often  make  a  more 
interesting  speech  if  he  chooses  a  character  who  is  little  known  and 
seeks  to  make  him  live  before  his  hearers. 


THE    ORATION  253 

Exercise  IV.  —  Bring  to  class  for  discussion  the  theme  sentence 
and  word  outline  from  which  the  oration  is  to  be  developed. 

Exercise  V.  —  Prepare  the  oration  so  that  it  will  occupy  not  less 
than  four  and  not  more  than  six  minutes. 

Exercise  VI.  —  Choose  any  commemorative  address  which  is 
accessible  from  the  list  given  in  Appendix  X  and  be  able  to  give  to 
the  class  a  summary  of  its  contents. 

Exercise  VII.  —  Review  the  Gettysburg  Address  and  the  dedi- 
catory addresses  given  in  Reading  Lesson  XI  and  mark  in  the  margin, 
with  the  corresponding  figures,  at  least  one  illustration  of  each  of  the 
following  ideas: 

1.  Reference  to  the  material  beauty  or  value  of  that  which  is 
dedicated. 

2.  Appreciation  of  those  who  have  made  the  dedication  possible. 

3.  Historical  reference  to  difficulties  encountered. 
Write  in  one  sentence  the  main  theme  of  each  address. 

Which  one  is  at  the  same  time  a  eulogy,  a  commemorative  oration, 
and  a  dedicatory  address? 

Exercise  VIII.  —  Bring  to  class  for  discussion  a  theme  sentence 
and  an  outline  either  for  a  commemorative  oration  or  for  a  dedi- 
catory address.  Select  a  subject  in  which  you  are  interested.  Choose 
a  situation  from  the  following  list  or  any  other  which  you  may  prefer. 
Commemorative  Oration: 

1.  On  the  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  a  society,  church, 
college,  or  newspaper. 

2.  Memorial  Day. 

3.  Admission  Day. 

4.  Fourth  of  July. 

5.  Columbus  Day. 
Dedicatory  Address: 

1.  Laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  a  high  school,  g>'mnasium,  Y. 
M.  C.  A.,  \'.  W.  C.  A.,  librar}',  college  buikling  devolcd  to  science, 
engineering,  art,  or  music. 

2.  The  opening  of  an  exposition  or  of  some  state  or  national  build- 
ing therein. 

,3.   The  opening  of  a  [dildic  bath,  park,  or  athletic  field. 


2  54  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Exercise  IX,  —  Prepare  the  speech  planned  in  Ex.  VIII  so  that  it 
will  occupy  not  less  than  four  and  not  more  than  six  minutes. 

Exercise  X.  —  Select  a  subject  from  the  list  of  "Oration  Subjects" 
(Appendix  XI).  Bring  to  class  for  discussion  a  theme  sentence  and 
a  word  outline  for  a  commencement  oration. 

Exercise  XI.  —  Prepare  the  oration  planned  in  Ex.  X,  so  that  it 
will  occupy  not  less  than  six  minutes  and  not  more  than  eight  minutes. 


READING   LESSON    XII  255 

READING   LESSON   XH 
Speeches  of  a  Presiding  Officer 

I.   Second  Inaugural  Address  of  Abraham  Lincoln: 

Fellow  Countrymen:  At  this  second  appearing  to  take  the  oath 
of  the  Presidential  office  there  is  less  occasion  for  an  extended  address 
than  there  was  at  the  first.  Then  a  statement  somewhat  in  detail 
of  a  course  to  be  pursued  seemed  fitting  and  proper.  Now,  at  the 
expiration  of  four  years,  during  which  public  declarations  have  been 
constantly  called  forth  on  every  point  and  phase  of  the  great  contest 
which  still  absorbs  the  attention  and  engrosses  the  energies  of  the 
nation,  little  that  is  new  could  be  presented.  The  progress  of  our 
arms,  upon  which  all  else  chiefly  depends,  is  as  well  known  to  the 
public  as  to  myself,  and  it  is,  I  trust,  reasonabl}^  satisfactory  and 
encouraging  to  all.  With  high  hope  for  the  future,  no  prediction  in 
regard  to  it  is  ventured. 

On  the  occasion  corresponding  to  this  four  years  ago  all  thoughts 
were  anxiously  directed  to  an  impending  civil  war.  All  dreaded  it, 
all  sought  to  avert  it.  While  the  inaugural  address  was  being  delivered 
from  this  place,  devoted  altogether  to  saving  the  Union  without  war, 
insurgent  agents  were  in  the  city  seeking  to  destroy  it  without  war  — 
seeking  to  dissolve  the  Union  and  divide  eflfects  by  negotiation.  Both 
parties  deprecated  war,  but  one  of  them  would  make  war  rather  than 
let  the  nation  survive,  and  the  other  would  accept  war  rather  than  let 
it  perish,  and  the  war  came. 

One-eighth  of  the  whole  population  were  colored  slaves,  not  dis- 
tributed generally  over  the  Union,  but  locaUzed  in  the  southern  part 
of  it.  These  slaves  constituted  a  peculiar  and  powerful  interest. 
All  knew  that  this  interest  was  somehow  the  cause  of  the  war.  To 
strengthen,  perpetuate,  and  extend  this  interest  was  the  object  for 
which  the  insurgents  would  rend  the  Union  even  by  war,  while  the 
Government  claimed  no  right  to  do  more  than  to  restrict  the  terri- 
torial enlargement  of  it.  Neither  party  expected  for  the  war  the 
magnitude  or  the  duration  which  it  has  already  attained.  Neither 
anticipated  that  the  cause  of  the  conflict  might  cease  with  or  even 
before  the  conflict  itself  should  cease.  Each  looked  for  an  easier 
triumj)!),  and  a  result  less  fundanuiital  and  astounding.     Both  read 


256  ORAL   ENGLISH 

the  same  Bible  and  pray  to  the  same  God,  and  each  invokes  His  aid 
against  the  other.  It  may  seem  strange  that  any  men  should  dare  to 
ask  a  just  God's  assistance  in  wringing  their  bread  from  the  sweat  of 
other  men's  faces,  but  let  us  judge  not,  that  we  be  not  judged.  The 
prayers  of  both  could  not  be  answered.  That  of  neither  has  been 
answered  fully.  The  Almighty  has  His  own  purposes.  "  Woe  unto 
the  world  because  of  offenses;  for  it  must  needs  be  that  offenses  come, 
but  woe  to  that  man  by  whom  the  offense  cometh."  If  we  shall 
suppose  that  American  slavery  is  one  of  those  offenses  which,  in  the 
providence  of  God,  must  needs  come,  but  which,  having  continued 
through  His  appointed  time.  He  now  wills  to  remove,  and  that  He 
gives  to  both  North  and  South  this  terrible  war  as  the  woe  due  to 
those  by  whom  the  offense  came,  shall  we  discern  therein  any  depart- 
ure from  those  divine  attributes  which  the  believers  in  a  living  God 
always  ascribe  to  Him?  Fondly  do  we  hope,  fervently  do  we  pray, 
that  this  mighty  scourge  of  war  may  speedily  pass  away.  Yet,  if 
God  wills  that  it  continue  until  all  the  wealth  piled  by  the  bondsman's 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  unrequited  toil  shall  be  sunk,  and  until 
every  drop  of  blood  drawn  with  the  lash  shall  be  paid  by  another 
drawn  with  the  sword,  as  was  said  three  thousand  years  ago,  so  still 
it  must  be  said  "  the  judgments  of  the  Lord  are  true  and  righteous 
altogether. " 

With  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firmness  in 
the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive  on  to  finish  the 
work  we  are  in,  to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds,  to  care  for  him  who 
shall  have  borne  the  battle  and  for  his  widow  and  his  orphan,  to  do 
all  which  may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  lasting  peace  among 
ourselves  and  with  all  nations.  [March  4,  1865.] 

2.   Woodrow  Wilson's  Inaugural  Address: 

There  has  been  a  change  of  government.  It  began  two  years 
ago,  when  the  House  of  Representatives  became  Democratic  by  a  de- 
cisive majority.  It  has  now  been  completed.  The  Senate  about  to 
assemble  will  also  be  Democratic.  The  offices  of  President  and  Vice- 
President  have  been  put  into  the  hands  of  Democrats.  What  does 
the  change  mean?  That  is  the  question  that  is  uppermost  in  our 
minds  to-day.  That  is  the  question  I  am  going  to  try  to  answer  in 
order,  if  I  may,  to  interpret  the  occasion. 


READING    LESSON    XII  257 

It  means  much  more  than  the  mere  success  of  a  party.  The 
success  of  a  party  means  little  except  when  the  nation  is  using  that 
party  for  a  large  and  definite  purpose.  No  one  can  mistake  the 
purpose  for  which  the  nation  now  seeks  to  use  the  Democratic  party. 
It  seeks  to  use  it  to  interpret  a  change  in  its  own  plans  and  point  of 
view.  Some  old  things  \\-ith  which  we  had  grown  familiar,  and  which 
had  begun  to  creep  into  the  very  habit  of  our  thought  and  of  our 
lives,  have  altered  their  aspect  as  we  have  latterly  looked  critically 
upon  them,  with  fresh,  awakened  eyes;  have  dropped  their  disguises 
and  shown  themselves  alien  and  sinister.  Some  new  things,  as  we 
look  frankly  upon  them,  willing  to  comprehend  their  real  character, 
have  come  to  assume  the  aspect  of  things  long  beUeved  in  and  familiar, 
stuff  of  our  own  convictions.  We  have  been  refreshed  by  a  new  in- 
sight into  our  own  life. 

We  see  that  in  many  things  life  is  very  great.  It  is  incom- 
parably great  in  its  material  aspects,  in  its  body  of  wealth,  in  the  diver- 
sity and  sweep  of  its  energy,  in  the  industries  which  have  been 
conceived  and  built  up  by  the  genius  of  individual  men  and  the  limit- 
less enterprise  of  groups  of  men.  It  is  great,  also,  ver>^  great,  in  its 
moral  force.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  have  noble  men  and  women 
exhibited  in  more  striking  forms  the  beauty  and  the  energy  of  sym- 
pathy and  helpfulness  and  counsel  in  their  efforts  to  rectify  wrong, 
alleviate  suffering,  and  set  the  weak  in  the  way  of  strength  and  hope. 
We  have  built  up,  moreover,  a  great  system  of  government,  which 
has  stood  through  a  long  age  in  many  respects  a  model  for  those  who 
seek  to  set  liberty  upon  foundations  that  will  endure  against  fortuitous 
change,  against  storm  and  accident.  Our  life  contains  every  great 
thing  and  contains  it  in  rich  abundance. 

But  the  evil  has  come  with  the  good,  and  much  fine  gold  has 
been  corroded.  With  riches  has  come  inexcusable  waste.  We  have 
squandered  a  great  part  of  what  we  might  have  used,  and  have  not 
slopped  to  conserve  the  exceeding  bounty  of-  nature,  without  which 
our  genius  for  enterprise  would  have  been  worthless  and  impotent, 
scorning  to  be  careful,  shamefully  prodigal  as  well  as  admirably  effi- 
cient. We  have  been  proud  of  our  industrial  achievements,  but  we 
have  not  hitherto  stopped  thoughtfully  enough  to  count  the  human 
cost,  the  cost  of  lives  snuffed  out,  of  energies  overtaxed  and  broken, 
the  fearful  physical  and  spiritual  cost  to  the  men  and  women  and 


258  ORAL   ENGLISH 

children  upon  whom  the  dead  weight  and  burden  of  it  all  has  fallen 
pitilessly  the  years  through.  The  groans  and  agony  of  it  all  had  not 
yet  reached  our  ears,  the  solemn,  moving  undertone  of  our  Ufe,  com- 
ing up  out  of  the  mines  and  factories  and  out  of  every  home  where 
the  struggle  had  its  intimate  and  familiar  seat.  With  the  great 
government  went  many  deep  secret  things  which  we  too  long  delayed 
to  look  into  and  scrutinize  with  candid,  fearless  eyes.  The  great 
government  we  loved  has  too  often  been  made  use  of  for  private  and 
selfish  purposes,  and  those  who  used  it  had  forgotten  the  people. 

At  last  a  vision  has  been  vouchsafed  us  of  our  life  as  a  whole. 
We  see  the  bad  with  the  good,  the  debased  and  decadent  with  the 
sound  and  vital.  With  this  vision  we  approach  new  affairs.  Our 
duty  is  to  cleanse,  to  reconsider,  to  restore,  to  correct  the  evil  with- 
out impairing  the  good,  to  purify  and  harmonize  every  process  of  our 
common  Hfe  without  weakening  or  sentimentalizing  it.  There  has 
been  something  crude  and  heartless  and  unfeeHng  in  our  haste  to 
succeed  and  be  great.  Our  thought  has  been  "Let  every  man  look 
out  for  himself,  let  every  generation  look  out  for  itself,"  while  we 
reared  giant  machinery  which  made  it  impossible  that  any  but  those 
who  stood  at  the  levers  of  control  should  have  a  chance  to  look  out  for 
themselves.  We  had  not  forgotten  our  morals.  We  remembered 
well  enough  that  we  had  set  up  a  policy  which  was  meant  to  serve 
the  humblest  as  well  as  the  most  powerful,  with  an  eye  single  to  the 
standards  of  justice  and  fair  play,  and  remembered  it  with  pride. 
But  we  were  very  heedless  and  in  a  hurry  to  be  great. 

We  have  come  now  to  the  sober  second  thought.  The  scales 
of  heedlessness  have  fallen  from  our  eyes.  We  have  made  up  our 
minds  to  square  every  process  of  our  national  life  again  with  the 
standards  we  so  proudly  set  up  at  the  beginning  and  have  always 
carried  at  our  hearts.     Our  work  is  a  work  of  restoration. 

We  have  itemized  with  some  degree  of  particularity  the  things 
that  ought  to  be  altered,  and  here  are  some  of  the  chief  items:  A 
tariff  which  cuts  us  off  from  our  proper  part  in  the  commerce  of  the 
world  violates  the  just  principles  of  taxation  and  makes  the  govern- 
ment a  facile  instrument  in  the  hands  of  private  interests;  a  banking 
and  currency  system  based  upon  the  necessity  of  the  government 
to  sell  its  bonds  50  years  ago  and  perfectly  adapted  to  concentrat- 
ing cash  and  restricting  credits;    an  industrial  system  which,  take 


READING    LESSON    XII  259 

it  on  all  sides,  financial  as  well  as  administrative,  holds  capital  in 
leading  strings,  restricts  the  liberties  and  limits  the  opportunities  of 
labor,  and  exploits  without  renewing  or  conserving  the  natural  re- 
sources of  the  country;  a  bod}^  of  agricultural  activities  never  yet 
given  the  efficiency  of  great  business  undertakings  or  served  as  it 
should  be  through  the  instrumentality  of  science  taken  directly  to 
the  farm,  or  afforded  the  facilities  of  credit  best  suited  to  its  practical 
needs;  watercourses  undeveloped,  waste  places  unreclaimed,  forests 
untended,  fast  disappearing,  without  plan  or  prospect  of  renewal, 
unregarded  waste  heaps  at  every  mine.  We  have  studied  as  per- 
haps no  other  nation  has  the  most  effective  means  of  production,  but 
we  have  not  studied  cost  or  economy  as  we  should,  either  as  organizers 
of  industry,  as  statesmen,  or  as  individuals. 

Nor  have  we  studied  and  perfected  the  means  by  which  govern- 
ment may  be  put  at  the  service  of  humanity  in  safeguarding  the 
health  of  the  nation,  the  health  of  its  men  and  its  women  and  its 
children,  as  well  as  their  rights  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  This  is 
no  sentimental  duty.  The  firm  basis  of  government  is  justice,  not 
pity.  These  are  matters  of  justice.  There  can  be  no  equality  of 
opportunity,  the  first  essential  of  justice  in  the  body  politic,  if  men 
and  women  and  children  be  not  shielded  in  their  lives,  their  very 
vitality,  from  the  consequences  of  great  industrial  and  social  processes 
which  they  cannot  alter,  control,  or  singly  cope  with.  Society  must 
see  to  it  that  it  does  not  itself  crush  or  weaken  its  own  constituent 
parts.  The  first  duty  of  law  is  to  keep  sound  the  society  it  serves. 
Sanitary  laws,  pure-food  laws,  and  laws  determining  conditions 
of  labor  which  individuals  are  powerless  to  determine  for  them- 
selves arc  intimate  parts  of  the  very  business  of  justice  and  legal 
efTiciency. 

These  arc  some  of  the  things  we  ought  to  do,  and  not  leave  the 
others  undone,  the  old-fashioned,  never-lo-be-neglectcd,  fundamental 
safeguarding  of  property  and  of  in(li\i(lual  right.  This  is  the  high 
enterprise  of  the  new  day:  to  lift  everything  that  concerns  our  life 
as  a  nation  to  the  light  that  shines  from  the  hearthfire  of  every  man's 
conscience  anrl  vision  of  the  right.  It  is  inconceivable  that  we  should 
do  it  in  ignorance  of  the  facts  as  they  are  or  in  blintl  haste.  \Vc 
shall  restore,  not  destroy.  We  shall  deal  willi  <nir  economic  system 
as  it  is  and  as  it  may  be  modified,  not  as  it  might  be  if  we  had  a  clean 


26o  ORAL   ENGLISH 

sheet  of  paper  to  write  upon;  and  step  by  step  we  shall  make  it  what 
it  should  be,  in  the  spirit  of  those  who  question  their  own  wisdom 
and  seek  counsel  and  knowledge,  not  shallow  self-satisfaction  or  the 
excitement  of  excursions  whither  they  cannot  tell.  Justice,  and  only 
justice,  shall  be  our  motto. 

And  yet  it  will  be  no  cool  process  of  mere  science.  The  nation 
has  been  deeply  stirred,  stirred  by  a  solemn  passion,  stirred  by  the 
knowledge  of  wrong,  of  ideals  lost,  of  government  too  often  debauched 
and  made  an  instrument  of  evil.  The  feelings  with  which  we  face 
this  new  age  of  right  and  opportunity  sweep  across  our  heart-strings 
like  some  air  out  of  God's  own  presence,  where  justice  and  mercy  are 
reconciled  and  the  judge  and  the  brother  are  one.  We  know  our 
task  to  be  no  mere  task  of  politics,  but  a  task  which  shall  search  us 
through  and  through,  whether  we  be  able  to  understand  our  time  and 
the  need  of  our  people,  whether  we  be  indeed  their  spokesmen  and 
interpreters,  whether  we  have  the  pure  heart  to  comprehend  and  the 
rectified  will  to  choose  our  high  course  of  action. 

This  is  not  a  day  of  triumph;  it  is  a  day  of  dedication.  Here 
muster,  not  the  forces  of  party,  but  the  forces  of  humanity.  Men's 
hearts  wait  upon  us;  men's  Hves  hang  in  the  balance;  men's  hopes 
call  upon  us  to  say  what  we  will  do.  Who  shall  live  up  to  the  great 
trust?  Who  dares  fail  to  try?  I  summon  all  honest  men,  all  patriotic, 
all  forward-looking  men,  to  my  side.  God  helping  me,  I  will  not  fail 
them,  if  they  will  but  counsel  and  sustain  me. 

3.  Response  of  Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  Dean  of  the  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of 
the  University  of  California,  upon  formal  induction  into  office.  Taken 
from  the  University  Chronicle,  Vol.  15,  p.  125: 

In  accepting  the  responsibility  of  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  it  must 
be  recognized  that  I  represent  only  one  of  the  agencies  by  which  the 
University  of  Cahfornia  seeks  to  develop  the  commonwealth.  The 
office  into  which  I  have  just  been  formally  inducted  typifies  the 
University's  relation  to  the  public  welfare.  The  organization  thus 
represented  looks  back  over  a  generation  of  steady  and  successful 
development  under  the  guidance  of  but  two  directors,  both  of  whom 
have  the  unique  distinction  of  remaining  as  honored  members  of  the 


READING    LESSON    XII  261 

faculty.  The  institulion  will  honor  itself  during  this  day's  exercises 
by  remembering  them  with  loving  kindness. 

With  ever>'  generation  of  men,  new  problems  arise.  Through 
the  operation  of  this  law,  the  College  of  Agriculture  finds  itself  in 
just  that  attitude.  Some  of  these  problems  are  the  most  important  as 
well  as  the  most  fundamental  with  which  the  Anglo-Sa.xon  race  has 
grappled  during  the  past  forty  centuries.  The  faculty  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  suffers  no  illusions  concerning  its  own  limitations  and 
makes  no  promises  beyond  pledging  its  best  endeavors. 

Upon  behalf  of  himself  and  his  associates  the  Dean  and  Director 
appeals  to  all  agencies,  public  and  private,  for  assistance  and  guidance. 
He  asks  the  sympathy  and  patience  of  the  Governor  of  the  State,  and 
the  President  of  the  University,  the  Board  of  Regents,  faculty,  and 
the  citizens  of  California,  while,  following  the  sane,  safe,  and  sensible 
policies  of  his  predecessors,  he  unobtrusively  and  without  undue 
publicity  endeavors  to  organize  the  best  and  most  efficient  faculty  of 
agriculture  that  has  ever  been  known. 

4.  Portion  of  an  address  of  w-elcome,  by  Arthur  Twining  Hadley, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  Bicentennial  Celebration  of  Yale  University, 
igoi: 

"Of  all  the  pleasures  and  the  duties  which  a  birthday  brings  with 
it,  the  most  welcome  duty  and  the  most  exalted  pleasure  is  found  in 
the  opportunity  which  it  affords  for  seeing,  united  under  one  roof, 
the  fellow  members  of  a  family  who  are  often  far  separated.  On  this 
two-hundredth  birthday  of  Yale  University,  it  is  our  chief  pride  to 
have  with  us  the  representatives  of  that  brotherhood  of  learning 
which  knows  no  bounds  of  time  or  place,  of  profession  or  creed." 

His  elaboration  of  his  theme  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

a.  This  brotherhood  of  learning  knows  no  bounds  of  age,  for  we 
have  with  us  the  youngest  student  and  the  oldest  alumnus  —  even  the 
dead  are  with  us  in  spirit. 

b.  It  knows  no  bounds  of  place,  for  we  have  visitors  from  St. 
Petersburg,  Japan,  and  Australasia. 

c.  It  knows  no  bounds  of  profession,  for  universities  n(j  longer 
confine  themselves  to  an  interest  in  theology,  law,  and  science,  but 
bring  all  callings  witiiin  the  scope-  of  iiiiiv(.rsily  life. 


262  OR.\L  ENGLISH 

d.  It  knows  no  bounds  of  creed,  for  we  have  a  common  religion 
which  teaches  us  broad  lessons  of  reverence,  tolerance,  and  earnest- 
ness, and  unites  us  in  a  common  purpose. 

5.  Address  of  Welcome  to  the  National  Education  Association, 
delivered  by  John  L.  Bates,  Governor  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Massachusetts,  in  Boston,  1903: 

Mr.  President,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  If  I  had  the  voice  of 
Niagara,  and  of  all  its  waters,  I  could  not  in  the  three  minutes 
assigned  to  me  express  the  welcome  of  Massachusetts. 

We  are  glad  to  see  )'ou  within  our  borders.  We  hope  you  will 
receive  pleasure  from  this  coming  together,  and  we  hope  as  the 
result  of  your  deliberations  there  will  be  profit  for  all  mankind. 

I  welcome  you  as  a  phalanx  that  carries  lanterns  to  bring  light 
into  dark  places,  as  an  army  that  carries  swords  to  cut  down  super- 
stition, and  spears  to  defeat  the  enemies  of  the  American  repubhc. 

I  welcome  you  as  men  and  women  engaged  in  one  great  organiza- 
tion for  the  uplifting  of  humanity.  I  welcome  you  as  men  and  women 
engaged  in  a  calling  that  takes  hold  of  the  future,  and  thereby  makes 
for  immortality.  I  welcome  you  to  the  commonwealth  of  Massa- 
chusetts —  to  the  land  of  the  Pilgrims,  who,  forgetful  of  their  poverty, 
built  colleges  for  the  expansion  of  the  mind.  I  welcome  you  to  the 
shores  of  the  Puritans,  who,  forgetful  of  the  palaces  of  earth,  built 
more  stately  mansions  for  the  soul. 

I  welcome  you  to  the  state  that  has  set  in  the  place  of  honor  at  the 
right  of  the  entrance  of  its  capitol  the  bronze  statue  of  Horace  Mann, 
the  educator. 

Thrice  welcome  to  the  old  Bay  State.^ 

6.  Portion  of  an  Address  of  Welcome  by  Inspector  James  L.  Hughes 
before  the  National  Education  Association  at  Toronto,  Canada,  1891: 

"Mr.  President,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen,  Members  of  the  National 
Education  Association  of  the  United  Slates:  On  behalf  of  the 
Local  Executive  Committee  of  Toronto,  I  have  the  honor  to  bid  you 
welcome  to-day  to  our  city.  It  gives  us  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  to 
welcome  you  here.    We  receive  you  as  strangers,  but  we  hope  to  make 

^Journal  of  Proceedings  and  Addresses  of  the  42d  Annual  Meeting, 
1903,  p.  41. 


READING    LESSON    XII  263 

you  friends  before  you  leave  us.  We  welcome  you  to-day  as  citizens 
of  a  great  and  friendly  nation  with  which  we  always  hope  to  live  at 
peace.  We  believe  that  ^-our  coming  here  and  our  going  to  your  land 
as  teachers,  fellow  workers  in  the  same  great  cause,  will  tend  to  per- 
petuate all  that  which  is  for  the  best  interests  of  the  two  countries, 
and  to  establish  common  education,  on  a  broad,  sound,  and  solid 
basis  which  can  never  be  disturbed.  We  welcome  you  as  teachers 
and  fellow  workers,  coming  here  to  take  part  in  the  discussion  of  some 
of  the  most  important  questions  relating  to  your  work  and  ours, 
and  we  trust  that  your  coming  and  that  your  discussion  of  matters 
which  we  may  listen  to  may  do  much  to  give  us  a  better,  grander, 
truer  idea  of  our  work  and  of  yours." 

7.  Portion  of  the  response  to  Addresses  of  Welcome  by  Josiah  H. 
Shinn,  President  of  the  Southern  Education  Association: 

"Mr.  President,  Ladies  and  GentUmen,  Members  of  the  Welcoming 
Committee  of  Canada:  It  was  not  my  proud  pleasure  to  listen  to  the 
splendid  addresses  made  by  your  representatives,  but  I  need  no 
such  addresses  to  know  the  spirit  of  welcome  that  lies  in  your  heart. 
One  hundred  and  ninety  teachers  over  here  at  this  little  port  of  yours 
were  stopped  by  customs  officers,  and  three  hundred  and  eighty  grip- 
sacks violently  laid  hold  of,  in  the  name  of  the  law,  and  not  even  a 
single  one  was  opened.  The  majesty  of  the  British  law  failed  before 
the  matchless  power  of  the  school-teachers  of  the  South  when  an 
English  customs  man  opened  his  heart,  cast  aside  the  mandate  of 
the  laws,  and  led  us  to  your  doors.  I  know  from  all  this  that  we  are 
welcome.  I  knew  when  we  reached  your  lillle  station  called  Strat- 
ford, where  we  found  about  four  hundred  baskets,  and  a  lot  of  bread 
and  butler  and  no  waiters  to  hand  out  that  which  is  pleasant  and  nice 
to  two  hundred  teachers  and  we  were  given  the  liberty  of  walking  up 
to  the  counter  and  helping  ourselves,  I  knew  we  were  welcome.  When 
we  were  away  back  in  our  beloved  "Southland"  we  knew  that  Cana- 
dians had  taken  the  word  of  welcome,  and  had  written  it  high  above 
all  others,  except  virtue,  love,  and  Iruth.  We  knew  that  you,  in  com- 
mon with  us,  had  inherited  a  hospitality  from  the  mother  country. 
We  thank  you  most  heartily  for  this  royal  reception."  ' 

'  National  Kducalion  Association.  Journal  of  Proceedings  and 
Addresses,  1891,  pp.  57  and  79. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

SPEECHES   OF  A   PRESIDING   OFFICER 

Introduction.  —  In  this  day  of  numerous  organizations, 
almost  anyone  may  be  asked  to  serve  as  presiding  officer. 
A  high-school  student  may  be  chosen  to  preside  over  his 
student  body  or  his  alumni  association,  a  literary,  social, 
or  dramatic  club,  or  a  religious  organization  such  as  a 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  or  a  Christian  Endeavor  society.  An  adult 
may  be  elected  to  preside  over  a  political  club,  a  lodge,  or 
a  woman's  club. 

The  speeches  which  a  president  should  make  need  not 
be  long,  but  they  should  be  felicitous,  that  is,  tactful, 
happy,  and  appropriate.  If  the  presiding  officer  knows 
what  to  say  upon  every  occasion,  he  is  like  the  accom- 
plished hostess  who  puts  her  guests  at  ease  under  all 
circumstances. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  discuss  the  subject  matter  which 
would  be  appropriate  (i)  for  speeches  delivered  upon  taking 
and  leaving  office,  (2)  for  a  speech  introducing  a  speaker, 
and  (3)  for  an  address  of  welcome  to  a  convention. 

I.   Entering    upon    and    Taking    Leave    of    Office 

Inaugural  Address.  —  If  the  office  to  be  filled  is  of 
considerable  importance,  the  opening  address  is  called 
an  inaugural.  Whether  the  position  be  prominent  or 
insignificant,  however,  the  same  principles  apply  to  the 
choice  of  suitable  material  for  the  opening  address. 


SPEECHES  OF  A  PRESIDING  OFFICER       265 

The  introduction  may  contain  an  expression  of  grati- 
tude for  the  honor  which  has  been  conferred  upon  the 
speaker,  a  modest  estimate  of  his  own  ability,  and  a  com- 
plimentary reference  to  the  work  of  previous  officers  or 
to  the  greatness  of  the  organization.  Let  us  see  how 
this  may  be  done.  Gladstone,  after  having  been  chosen 
Lord  Rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  or  presiding 
member  of  its  court,  made  an  address  before  an  audience 
more  than  half  of  whom  were  students.  He  first  spoke 
of  the  high  estimate  which  he  placed  upon  the  office  and 
expressed  his  sense  of  inability  to  fill  it  acceptably,  due 
to  the  fact  of  his  advancing  years.  He  then  spoke  in 
complimentary  terms  of  the  diligence  and  ability  of  the 
faculty  and  the  earnestness  of  the  students,  congratu- 
lating Scotland  as  a  nation  upon  the  rapid  growth  of  her 
universities. 

Chauncey  M.  Depew  was  for  seven  years  presi- 
dent of  the  Union  League  Club  of  New  York.  In  his 
first  inaugural  address,  in  addition  to  thanks,  compliments, 
and  pleasantries,  he  spoke  of  the  brilliant  past  of  the 
League.  He  referred  to  its  foundation  as  an  organization 
to  succor  the  wounded  in  the  Civil  War;  he  told  how  it 
had  equipped  the  first  negro  regiment;  and  finally,  he 
spoke  of  its  later  work  in  overcoming  political  rings  and 
combinations. 

The  body  of  the  inaugural  address  will  vary  with  the 
nature  of  the  organization.  If  the  organization  has 
been  formed  mainly  for  self-improvement,  the  body  of 
the  speech  may  deal  with  some  topic  of  interest  to  the 
members.  T'or  example,  (jladstone's  address  before  the 
students  of  Glasgow  was  entitled,  "Modern  Training  for 
Life."     He  gave  statistics  which  showed  the  purposes  of 


266  ORAL  ENGLISH 

the  students  as  evidenced  by  the  professions  which  they 
expected  to  follow,  and  discussed  the  importance  of  each 
occupation  in  the  work  of  the  world.  In  this  way  he 
pointed  out  the  service  and  influence  of  the  university. 
If  the  organization  has  been  formed  to  carry  out  some 
definite  work,  it  is  the  privilege  of  the  incoming  president 
to  suggest  the  policy  to  be  pursued  during  his  term  of 
office.  Mr.  Depew,  for  instance,  in  his  first  inaugural, 
urged  that  the  club  be  made  less  a  political  and  more 
of  a  social  organization.  In  his  second  inaugural,  he 
advocated  the  encouragement  of  an  American  school  of 
art  and  the  purchase  by  the  Club  of  a  certain  number 
of   American  pictures  each  year. 

The  conclusion  of  an  opening  address  may  express  con- 
fidence in  the  support  and  cooperation  of  the  members. 

FarewelL  —  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  a  farewell 
speech  at  the  close  of  one's  term  of  office  is  unnecessary. 
It  may  be,  however,  that  the  officer  is  to  leave  the  locality 
or  that  he  has  seen  long  service.  In  either  of  these 
cases  his  associates  may  wish  to  express  their  appreciation 
in  the  form  of  a  dinner  or  a  gift.  Such  an  occasion  would 
call  for  appropriate  remarks  by  the  outgoing  officer.  He 
cannot  go  far  astray  if  he  expresses  modesty  in  regard  to 
his  own  accomplishments,  gratitude  for  the  support  and 
appreciatio-n  of  his  friends,  and  a  deep  interest  in  the  future 
welfare  of  the  organization  and  its  members. 

II.   Introducing  a  Speaker 

An  introductory  speech  has  two  purposes:  (i)  It  should 
aim  to  inspire  the  audience  with  confidence  in  the  speaker. 
The  presiding  officer  is  always  well  known  to  the  audience, 
while  frequently  the  speaker  is  not.     Reference  to  the 


SPEECHES   OF  A  PRESIDING  OFFICER       267 

speaker's  past  achievements  or  his  particular  qualifications 
for  discussing  the  subject  chosen  is  therefore  always  in 
place.  (2)  The  introductory  speech  should  seek  to  arouse 
the  interest  of  the  audience  in  the  subject  of  the  discourse. 
This  should  be  its  aim  if  the  subject  is  an  unpopular  one. 
The  presiding  officer  should  lend  his  influence  to  the 
speaker  in  order  to  win  for  him  at  the  start  a  serious 
and  respectful  consideration.  This  purpose  need  not  be 
present  if  the  speaker  to  be  introduced  is  famous  and  can 
carry  his  audience  with  him,  whatever  may  be  his  subject. 
More,  than  all,  an  introductory  speech  must  be  brief, 
for  the  audience  has  come  to  hear  the  speaker  and  not 
the  presiding  officer. 

III.   Address   of   Welcome   to   a    Convention 

When  a  convention  meets  in  a  city,  the  address  of  wel- 
come may  be  made  by  the  mayor  of  the  city,  the  president 
of  the  local  organization,  the  president  of  the  chamber  of 
commerce,  or  any  other  prominent  citizen. 

The  address  of  welcome  has  two  chief  purposes:  (i)  It 
aims  to  express  the  pleasure  which  the  citizens  feel  because 
of  the  presence  of  their  visitors.  While  it  is  correct  form 
to  i)lace  the  resources  of  the  city  at  the  disposal  of  the 
guests,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  any  appearance  of  boast- 
fulness.  (2)  The  address  of  welcome  should  seek  to  create 
a  sense  of  unity  and  good-fellowship  In'  {)resenting  the 
common  j)urposes  and  interests  which  have  drawn  the 
members  of  the  audience  together.  If  the  address  is 
mafic  by  one  who  is  not  a  meml)er,  this  may  ])v  done  by 
complimentary  reference  to  the  importance  and  value  of 
the  work  which  is  being  accomplished  by  the  organization. 
If  the  address  is  made  by  a  member,  it  may  be  done  by 


268  ORAL   ENGLISH 

reference  to  the  growth  of  the  organization,  some  of  the 
important  problems  which  are  to  engage  the  attention  of 
the  delegates,  and  the  mutual  benefit  which  will  be  derived 
from  an  exchange  of  ideas. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  received  some 
suggestions  as  to  what  it  is  appropriate  to  say  (i)  in  an  in- 
augural and  in  a  farewell  speech,  (2)  in  a  speech  of  intro- 
duction, and  (3)  in  an  address  of  welcome  to  a  convention. 


TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Speeches  of  a  Presiding  Officer 

Introduction. 

I.    Result  of  numerous  organizations. 
II.    Value  of  knowing  what  to  say. 
III.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   Entering  upon  and  taking  leave  of  ofifice. 

A .  Inaugural  address.  —  Principles. 

1.  Content  of  the  introduction. 

{a)    Items. 
{b)    Examples. 

(i)    Gladstone. 

(2)    Depew. 

2.  Content  of  the  body. 

{a)    Varies  with  purpose. 
ib)    Topic  of  interest. 

(i)    Gladstone, 
(f)    Suggestion  as  to  poHcy. 

(i)   Depew. 

3.  Content  of  conclusion. 

B.  Farewell. 

1 .  Circumstances. 

2.  Content. 
II.   Introducing  a  speaker. 


SPEECHES   OF  A  PRESIDING  OFFICER       269 

II.  A.   Purposes. 

1 .  Speaker. 

2.  Subject. 
B.   Brief. 

III.  Address  of  welcome  to  a  convention. 

A.  By  whom  made. 

B.  Purposes. 

1.  Pleasure. 

(<;)    Boastfulness. 

2.  Create  unity. 

(a)   If  made  by  a  non-member. 
(6)    If  made  by  a  member. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Review  the  three  inaugural  addresses  in  Reading 
Lesson  XII  and  answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  Why  does  Mr.  Lincoln  not  go  into  detail  as  to  the  course  of 
action  to  be  pursued  during  the  next  four  years? 

2.  In  what  sentence  docs  he  place  the  blame  for  the  war  on  both 
North  and  South? 

3.  It  is  said  that  Lincoln's  simple  yet  dignified  and  even  elegant 
style  of  expression  may  be  attributed  partly  to  the  fact  that  his  early 
reading  was  confined  to  Shakespeare  and  the  Bible.  What  in  this 
address  shows  his  knowledge  of  the  latter? 

4.  What  seems  to  be  the  main  purpose  of  his  historical  review  of 
the  situation? 

5.  Select  the  sentences  from  each  address  in  which  the  speaker 
asks  for  the  cooperation  of  his  fellows. 

6.  Docs  President  Wilson  compliment  or  condemn  his  predeces- 
sors? 

7.  How  does  he  seek  to  excuse  the  mistakes  of  the  past? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  things  which  he  thinks  need  to  be  done. 

9.  lie  suggests  thai  they  Ije  done  in  what  sjMril? 

10.  Find  in  each  address  expressions  which  indicate  that  the 
speaker  places  a  modest  estimate  upon  his  own  abilities. 

1 1.  I'liid  in  ihc  third  an  ai)prcciative  reference  to  his  predecessors. 


270  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Exercise  III.  —  Assume  that  you  have  been  elected  to  the  presi- 
dency of  your  student  body,  alumni  association,  religious  organization, 
language,  literary,  scientific,  dramatic,  political,  or  woman's  club. 
Prepare  a  three-minute  speech  which  would  be  appropriate  for  the 
first  meeting  after  your  election.  At  the  conclusion  of  your  own 
inaugural,  make  a  one-minute  speech  introducing  a  speaker  to  the 
members  of  your  society.  Do  not  use  a  fictitious  name.  Your 
speech  will  be  much  more  interesting  if  you  choose  a  real  person. 

Exercise  IV.  —  Review  Nos.  4  to  7  of  Reading  Lesson  XII  and 
answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  In  what  way  is  President  Hadley's  address  particularly  appro- 
priate to  the  occasion? 

2.  In  what  ways  does  Governor  Bates  compliment  his  guests? 

3.  In  what  ways  does  he  show  pride  in  his  state? 

4.  How  does  his  reference  to  the  history  of  Massachusetts  help  to 
create  a  sense  of  unity? 

5.  Mr.  Hughes  of  Toronto  was  speaking  to  members  of  his  own 
profession.  What  ideas  did  he  express  which  would  tend  to  promote 
good-fellowship  and  cause  those  present  to  realize  the  dignity  and 
value  of  the  convention? 

Exercise  V.  —  Choose  one  from  among  the  following  situations 
and  prepare  an  appropriate  address  of  welcome.  Let  it  occupy  from 
three  to  four  minutes.  Select  an  organization  about  whose  history 
and  purposes  you  either  have  or  can  get  information: 

1.  As  president  of  a  high  school  or  normal  school  student  body, 
give  an  address  of  welcome  before  the  alumni  association,  which  is  to 
hold  its  meetings  in  your  building. 

2.  As  president  of  a  local  organization  (lodge,  woman's  club, 
fraternity,  chamber  of  commerce,  labor  union,  etc.)  welcome  a  con- 
vention of  delegates  of  that  organization  from  other  cities. 

3.  Welcome  one  of  the  above-mentioned  organizations,  not  as  a 
member,  but  as  the  mayor  or  some  other  prominent  citizen  of  the 
city. 


READING    LESSON    XIII  271 

READING   LESSON    XIU 
Speeches  for  Social  Occasions 

I.  From  a  speech  by  Chauncey  M.  Depew  at  a  dinner  given  to 
fifty  vagrants  on  Christmas  eve,  i8g6: 

My  Friends:  It  is  Christmas  eve,  and  I  hope  we  have  all  begun 
the  hours  that  lead  to  Christmas  in  the  proper  way  —  that  is,  by  filling 
ourselves  as  full  as  we  can  of  the  good  things  of  this  world. 

I  have  presided  at  many  dinners  and  attended  many  more  — 
perhaps  more  than  any  other  man  in  New  York  —  but  certainly  never 
did  I  preside  over  or  attend  a  dinner  from  which  I  have  derived  more 
real  pleasure  than  from  this  dinner  here  to-night.  .  .  . 

I  have  read  of  the  great  dinners  they  had  in  Rome,  when  a  man 
would  expend  his  entire  fortune,  great  as  those  fortunes  were,  to 
entertain  an  emperor.  Only  one  of  the  great  historical  dinners  ever 
interested  me  —  the  one  told  of  in  the  New  Testament,  where  the 
host,  his  guests  having  failed  to  answer  or  to  send  excuses,  found  his 
tables  unoccupied.  Then  it  was  that  he  told  the  people  of  his  house- 
hold to  go  out  into  the  highways  and  byways  and  gather  in  all  they 
might  find.  I  would  like  to  have  been  at  that  dinner.  I  have  pictured 
it  often  in  my  mind.  Had  the  guests  who  had  been  invited  attended, 
some  of  them  would  have  criticized  the  wines  of  the  host,  saying  they 
had  better  in  their  own  cellars;  others  would  have  criticized  the 
food  and  declared  that  their  own  cooks  could  have  prepared  better 
dishes.  Then,  as  he  departed,  each  would  shake  the  hand  of  the  host 
hypocritically  and  bid  him  good-night  with  the  false  statement  that 
he  had  never  had  a  better  time  or  a  belter  dinner  in  his  life.  In  my 
mind's  eye.  I  can  see  some  of  the  guests  who  attended  the  feast.  One 
was,  perhaps,  the  student  who,  in  striving  after  distinction  in  a  pro- 
fession, had  neglected  to  provide  for  his  material  wants  and  was  in 
distress.  Another  was,  perhaps,  the  skilled  mechanic  out  of  a  job, 
wanting  only  the  o[)f)()rluiiity  to  work  hut  failing  to  find  it.  I  can 
picture  the  lawyer  without  clients  and  the  playwright  discouraged 
because  he  could  not  sell  his  play.  I  can  see  there,  too,  the  poet  or 
the  author  whom  [)ublishers  had  iiol  recognized,  but  who  was  destined 
to  become  a  great  man  in  the  literature  of  the  future.     I  can  see  there, 


272  ORAL  ENGLISH 

too,  the  professional  tramp  who  would  do  everything  but  work, 
absolutely  refusing  to  do  that.  The  professional  tramp,  more  com- 
pletely than  any  other  type  of  man  on  earth,  meets  the  biblical  de- 
scription of  the  lily  in  the  field.  He  toils  not,  neither  does  he  spin, 
yet  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 

We  meet  here  this  Christmas  eve  and  the  occasion  is  one  that 
suggests  a  few  things  to  me  —  to  all  of  us.  No  matter  how  fortunate 
or  unfortunate  we  may  be,  Christmas  eve  should  be  an  hour  of  re- 
joicing. Whether  we  are  in  luck  or  whether  we  are  not  in  luck,  we 
cannot  forget  that  this  hour  is  the  one  that  led  to  the  coming  of  Christ 
to  this  earth.  He  came  as  the  great  leveler.  It  was  his  mission  to 
inculcate  doctrines  that  would  wipe  out  despotism  and  injustice.  .  .  . 
If  a  man  has  the  element  of  hope  in  his  heart  he  can  and  will  find  a 
place  from  which  he  can  start  afresh  in  the  journey  of  his  life,  no 
matter  how  dark  his  past  has  been.  You  may  say  that  it  is  easy  for 
a  man  like  me  to  make  such  a  statement;  but,  my  friends,  it  has 
been  my  privilege  during  the  last  thirty  years  to  come  into  contact 
with  men  who  have  encountered  the  most  discouraging  conditions  of 
life.  I  have  seen  men  who  were  in  magnificent  circumstances  go  to 
the  gutter  through  rum.  I  have  seen  them  conquer  the  appetite, 
and,  having  conquered  it,  gain  new  courage.  I  have  seen  them,  start- 
ing from  that  new  landing  place,  work  up  and  up  again  until  they 
reached  their  proper  sphere. 

I  know  what  it  is  to  be  in  hard  luck  myself.  I  belong  to  a  family 
that  has  the  trait  of  always  worrying  about  things  that  don't  happen. 
My  father  died  of  worrying  and  my  grandfather  died  of  worrying,  and 
I  almost  made  up  my  mind  that  I  would  die  of  worry.  For  the  first 
thirty  years  of  my  life  I  worried  enough  to  have  shuffled  off  this 
mortal  coil  and  climbed  the  Golden  Stairs.  But  I  had  good  lungs, 
good  heart,  good  stomach,  and  good  muscles,  and  somehow  I  couldn't 
die.  Then  I  had  a  hard  blow.  I  lost  every  dollar  I  had  in  the  world. 
My  father  was  one  of  those  men  who  believed  that  a  boy  should  be 
thrown  out  into  the  world  and  made  to  hustle  for  himself  if  he  was 
ever  going  to  amount  to  anything.  I  went  to  him  with  my  troubles. 
All  he  did  was  to  cry.  I  did  not  want  tears.  I  wanted  greenbacks. 
I  wanted  help,  not  syrhpathy.  I  thought  that  my  jig  was  up  for  sure 
and  for  a  time  was  very  much  down  in  the  heart,  but  one  day,  thank 
God,  I  came  to  realize  that  this  was  a  bright  and  beautiful  world.  .  .  . 


READING    LESSON    XIII  273 

I  declared  that  I  should  go  to  work,  stop  worrying,  cultivate  cheer- 
fulness and  tr>'  to  be  merry.  The  result  of  that  philosophy  is  that 
for  twenty  years  I  have  been  trying  to  get  fun  out  of  everything.  If 
it  is  work,  I  get  fun  out  of  that.  If  I  am  at  sea  during  a  hard  blow 
and  all  the  other  passengers  are  so  sick  that  they  wish  they  were  dead, 
I  try  to  get  fun  out  of  that  too.  I  am  always  trying  to  get  a  chance 
to  laugh.  The  result  is  that  I  have  reversed  the  hereditary  conditions 
that  nature  put  in  me,  but  \dth  which  God  never  intended  that  a 
man  should  be  afflicted.  I  cultivated  hope  until  I  became  an  opti- 
mist. .  .  . 

I  believe  the  trouble  \nth  most  of  us  is  that  we  get  in  a  rut.  We 
get  in  the  procession  and  we  cannot  get  out  of  it.  We  want  something 
a  little  better  than  the  chance  that  is  given  to  us  at  the  time.  We 
are  not  willing  enough  to  take  the  chance  presented  to  us.  Up  in 
Peekskill,  a  town  that  originates  pretty  nearly  all  the  things  that  are 
worth  thinking  about  in  this  world  and  in  which  I  had  my  origin, 
they  had  a  habit  of  always  following  a  hearse  at  a  funeral.  A  Peek- 
skiller  who  had  come  down  to  New  York  and  died  was  to  be  "  planted," 
as  Peekskillers  say.  Some  of  his  New  York  friends  went  up  to  the 
funeral.  They  took  carriages  and  got  into  the  procession  to  follow 
the  hearse.  After  a  while  they  noticed  that  they  were  riding  over 
very  rough  ground  and  that  the  carriage  was  swajdng  from  side  to 
side  in  such  a  manner  as  to  threaten  to  spill  them  out.  One  of  the 
New  York  dudes  stuck  his  head  out  of  the  carriage  window  and 
shouted  to  the  driver,  "Hi,  there!  What  the  deuce  arc  you  trying 
to  do?  Do  you  want  to  break  our  necks?  Where  are  you  taking  us 
to,  anyway?"  The  old  Peekskill  driver  leaned  over  and  answered 
"Well,  I'll  tell  you,  gents,  the  horses  with  the  hearse  started  to  run 
away  ten  minutes  ago  and  they're  running  yet,  and  you  know,  up 
here  in  Peekskill,  it's  the  rule  for  the  mourners  to  follow  the  hearse, 
and  I  ain't  going  to  break  it."  Now,  it's  not  a  good  rule  to  follow  the 
hearse.  If  you've  been  doing  it,  stop.  When  a  man  finds  himself 
in  the  wrong  procession,  the  best  thing  for  him  to  do  is  to  get  out. 
When  the  chance  comes,  it  may  not  be  in  a  very  inviting  landing 
place,  but  if  it  gives  him  an  opportunity  and  if  he  has  the  courage  and 
pluck  and  sobriety  to  take  advantage  of  it  and  does  so,  he  is  on  the 
way  to  make  all  his  Christmases  merry  Christmases.  .  .  . 

I  wish  you  all  a  Merry  Christmas  tomorrow,  and  an  opportunity 


2  74  ORAL  ENGLISH 

to  work  and  to  prosper  during  the  coming  year.  I  hope  from  the 
bottom  of  my  heart  that  you  will  all  start  out  to-night  with  new  hope. 
...  I  trust  that  a  year  from  to-night  you  will  all  be  able  to  say  that 
1897  was  a  year  of  success  for  you  and  that  you  will  be  sitting  as  hosts 
at  Christmas  tables  where  you  can  give  words  of  comfort  and  en- 
couragement to  those  whom  the  vicissitudes  of  life  may  place  in  the 
same  positions  in  which  you  are  now.^ 

2.  Extract  from  a  speech  given  by  Mr.  James  Bryce,  Ambassador 
from  England  to  the  United  States,  at  a  dinner  of  the  Harvard  Alumni. 
After  thanking  the  presiding  officer  and  the  University  for  the  cordial 
reception  which  has  been  tendered  to  him,  he  continues: 

I  take  it  as  an  expression  of  your  warm  feeling  towards  that 
country  from  which  so  many  of  the  ancestors  of  men  of  Massachusetts 
came,  and  which  always  is  and  always  will  be  proud  of  having  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  two  famous  commonwealths  of  Massachusetts 
and  Virginia.  I  noted  an  interesting  trace  of  the  way  in  which  the 
Old  World  lives  in  the  New  in  the  fact  that  the  air  to  which  you  have 
just  sung  the  song  of  "Fair  Harvard"  was  an  air  composed  by  some 
unknown  Celtic  minstrel  centuries  ago  in  Ireland,  and  in  the  fact 
that  the  song  with  which  you  are  going  to  close  our  gathering  to-day 
is  the  song  which  all  over  the  English-speaking  world  is  used  at  mo- 
ments of  parting,  and  which  comes  from  the  pen  of  my  countryman, 
Robert  Burns.  It  is  not  only  in  great  things  but  also  in  little  things 
like  these  that  we  see  how  deep  the  unity  of  our  feelings  goes. 

You  asked  me  just  now,  Mr.  President,  to  say  what  those  who 
are  going  across  to  The  Hague  wdll  find  in  England.  I  can  tell  you 
very  easily.  It  was  brought  to  my  mind  by  some  words  which  fell 
from  the  lips  of  the  president  of  this  University.  You  will  find  there 
ancient  universities  weltering  in  an  abyss  of  poverty.  Think  of  my 
feehngs,  gentlemen,  when  the  president  of  Harvard  University  said 
that  within  the  last  six  years  Harvard  University  had  received  gifts 
from  private  benefactors  to  the  amount  of  eight  millions.  Think  of 
the  fact  that  the  class  of  1882  is  giving  and  other  classes  hereafter 
are  expected,  with  what  I  have  no  doubt  is  a  prescience  born  of  long 
observation,  to  give  one  hundred  thousand  dollars,  or  as  much  more 

1  Chauncey  M.  Depew.     Orations,  Addresses,  and  Speeches,  II,  p.  319. 


READING    LESSON    XIII  275 

as  may  befit  the  growing  wealth  of  the  country.  Add  these  endow- 
ments together,  and  then  think  of  how  much  richer  Harvard  becomes 
every  year;  and  think  of  the  fact  that  in  England  we  can  hardly 
scrape  together  even  the  money  that  is  necessary  to  enable  us  to  set 
up  proper  scientific  apparatus  for  university  teaching  and  research 
and  adequately  support  our  world-famous  libraries.  The  old  moral- 
ists and  preachers  —  indeed,  many  of  the  poets  also  were  fond  of 
dilating  upon  the  blessings  of  poverty  and  the  dangers  of  wealth. 
The  only  fear  I  can  have  for  the  future  of  Harvard  arises  from  the 
refie.x  action  of  those  millions.  How  will  you  ever  spend  the  wealth 
that  is  descending  in  a  golden  torrent  upon  you?  We,  I  suppose, 
ought  to  have  the  virtues  which  poverty  is  supposed  to  foster.  There 
is  an  anecdote  of  a  Scotch  lady  who  was  dragged  in  a  carriage  by  run- 
away horses;  the  bottom  fell  out  of  the  carriage,  and  she  suffered 
severely  for  two  miles  before  the  horses  could  be  pulled  up;  but  one 
of  her  friends  who  came  to  condole  with  her,  being  of  a  very  pious 
spirit,  said,  "  After  all,  my  dear,  it  must  have  been  a  blessed  experience." 
And  we,  I  suppose,  when  we  think  of  the  blessings  which  moralists 
sec  in  the  hardship  of  the  poor,  and  of  the  many  temptations  incident 
to  wealth,  ought  to  feel  glad  that  those  temptations  arc  not  thrown  in 
our  way.  You  probably  remember  the  anecdote  of  the  man  who  was 
seen  lying  on  the  pavement  of  a  street  in  London  by  commiserating 
spectators,  one  of  whom,  trying  to  raise  his  head,  observed,  "Poor 
fellow,  he  must  be  very  ill,"  upon  which  a  cabman  standing  by  said, 
"  I  only  wish,  sir,  I  had  half  his  complaint."  We  would  be  wiUing, 
gentlemen,  to  have  half  the  complaint  with  which  Harvard  is  threat- 
ened by  its  increasing  opulence. 

Since,  however,  poverty  is  our  lot,  we  try  to  live  upon  our  tra- 
ditions. They  are  a  tonic  sort  of  food,  but  they  are  not  nutritious. 
However,  they  are  all  we  have.  They  arc  ancient  and  glorious 
traditions;  yet  perhaps  they  arc  not  relatively  more  ancient  than 
yours,  because  your  traditions  began  within  a  very  few  years  of  the 
settlement  of  this  continent,  when  a  man  of  whom  little  is  known 
except  that  he  was  a  man  of  university  training  and  high  ideals  gave 
a  small  fund  for  the  foundation  of  a  college  here  which  has  t)ecomc 
the  cradle  of  the  whole  university  system  of  Ainerica.  And  you  have 
built  u]>  long  and  glorious  traditions.  When  I  look  around  at  the 
walls  of  this  room ;  when  I  think  of  the  famous  men  who  have  adorned 


2  76  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Harvard;  when  I  think  not  only  of  those  famous  men,  but  of  the 
thousands  of  noble  lives,  of  those  who  died  in  the  Civil  War,  and  of 
those  who  have  lived  lives  devoted  to  their  country  before  and  since 
the  war,  men  who  were  inspired  by  the  traditions  of  Harvard,  I  think 
how  great  a  power  a  university  has  of  forming  the  spirit  of  a  people. 
Both  you  and  we  have  our  traditions,  and  we  prize  them.  You  need 
your  traditions  to  save  you  from  your  wealth;  we  need  our  traditions 
to  support  us  in  our  poverty. 

3.  Speech  of  Chauncey  M.  Depew,  introducing  Sir  Edwin  Arnold, 
New  York,  October  8,  1891: 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  It  is  a  great  pleasure  for  many  of  us  to 
embrace  this  opportunity  to  enter  the  peaceful  domain  of  poetry  and 
philosophy  so  soon  after  yesterday's  election.  The  event  which  calls 
us  together,  so  unique  and  of  such  international  significance,  could 
happen  between  the  people  of  no  other  nations  than  those  of  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  With  all  others  is  the  barrier  of 
race  and  the  insuperable  obstacle  of  language.  We  are  happy  to 
greet  so  distinguished  a  representative  of  our  kin  across  the  sea  and 
so  eminent  a  master  of  our  common  mother  tongue.  An  English  audi- 
ence applauding  James  Russell  Lowell  and  those  in  America  cheer- 
ing Sir  Edwin  Arnold  present  the  unity  in  essentials  of  these  great 
empires  and  the  possibilities  before  EngUsh-speaking  peoples.  Our 
language  is  conquering  the  earth.  It  is  destined  to  be  for  the  East 
more  than  Buddha  the  "Light  of  Asia"  and  to  diffuse  around  the 
globe  the  "Light  of  the  World." 

Commercial  rivalries  and  diplomatic  frictions  promote  the 
health  of  nations.  Contending  for  markets  stirs  the  energies  and 
inspires  the  inventive  genius  of  both  America  and  England.  Pohti- 
cal  necessities,  or  the  bumptiousness  of  the  hour  on  one  side  or  the 
other  will  always  provide  a  Bering  Sea,  or  a  Fisheries,  or  a  Canadian 
problem  for  a  tournament  of  the  pen  between  Washington  and  West- 
minster, but  the  brotherhood  of  letters  will  prevent  these  disputes 
ever  ending  in  the  bloody  arbitrament  of  arms. 

When  Lowell  died  this  summer,  the  tributes  of  the  English  press 
were  so  generous  and  discriminating,  they  paid  such  glowing  eulogy 
to  his  genius,  and  gave  such  full  and  graceful  recognition  to  the  merit 
and  originahty  of  American  Hterature,  that  they  strengthened  the 


READING    LESSON    XIII  277 

ties  between  the  Old  country  and  the  New,  and  emphasized  the  uni- 
versal amity  of  the  guild  of  letters. 

The  authors  have  at  last  succeeded  in  conv-incing  the  poUticians 
that  they  know  better  than  Congressmen  their  own  mission  and 
interests,  and  a  year  unusually  rich  in  conspicuous  legislation  will 
count  as  one  of  its  most  beneficent  measures,  again  enforcing  the 
maxim  that  peace  has  her  victories  as  well  as  war,  the  International 
Copyright  Law. 

We  have  hospitably  received  all  the  lecturers  from  the  other  side 
who  had  or  thought  they  had  ideas  to  plant  in  our  virgin  soil,  but  our 
welcome  has  been  given  to  few.  We  have  hailed  always  with  delight 
the  advent  of  the  glorious  thinkers  whose  works  are  the  features  and 
the  factors  of  the  literature  of  our  time.  Herbert  Spencer  and  Canon 
Kingsley  and  Archdeacon  Farrar  spoke  to  loyal  subjects  and  enthu- 
siastic admirers  who  knew  intimately  the  letter  and  spirit  of  their 
teachings  and  rejoiced  to  meet  the  teacher.  But  we  have  loved  more 
to  greet  the  creative  minds  who  came  to  interpret  books  which  were 
the  favorites  of  our  libraries,  and  to  illustrate  characters  which  had 
been  adopted  as  members  of  our  families.  To  hear  Thackeray  dis- 
sect the  Georges,  and  to  have  Dickens  personally  introduce  us  to 
the  dear  old  friends  Captain  Cuttle,  ]Micawber,  the  Marchioness,  and 
others  whom  we  had  idealized  and  loved,  formed  eras  in  our  lives. 
Only  those  who  hstened  to  the  blind  bard  as  he  sang  his  immortal 
epic  ever  fully  understood  the  Iliad.  I  heard  the  presiding  ofiicer 
introduce  Matthew  Arnold,  when  he  was  here,  as  the  author  of  the 
Light  of  Asia.  The  busy  man  of  affairs  who  had  not  differentiated 
the  Arnolds,  never  knew  why  his  compliment  was  not  appreciated, 
but  he  well  understood  that  there  was  one  priceless  contribution  to 
the  thought  of  the  age  which  had  made  immortal  the  name  of  Arnold. 
We  welcome  Sir  Edwin  because  he  is  an  American  by  birth  on  his 
wife's  side.  His  career  is  peculiariy  Western.  Most  of  our  famous 
men  have  won  their  way  through  college  and  into  the  professions  by 
teaching  the  district  school  or  rural  academy  and  our  guest  began  as 
a  teacher.  He  brings  a  lesson  we  cannot  learn  too  soon,  the  division 
of  labor.  While  editor-in-chief  of  the  journal  enjoying  the  largest 
circulation  in  (ireat  Britain,  he  found  time  for  the  composition  of 
those  exquisite  and  profound  works  which  are  his  fame  and  part  of 
the  glory  of  our  period.     Sir  Edwin  Arnold  comes  to  us  as  Laboulayc 


278  ORAL   ENGLISH 

might  have  come,  as  John  Bright  might  have  come,  to  receive  the 
expressions  of  our  gratitude  for  writing  daily  to  his  great  constitu- 
ency, on  the  side  of  our  national  life  and  unity  when  both  were  in 
peril.  We  had  then  in  England  few  friends  in  power  or  in  the  press, 
but  he  was  one  of  the  truest  and  most  useful.  This  journalist,  poet, 
philosopher,  and  friend  is  with  us  tonight,  and  I  have  the  pleasure  of 
introducing  to  you  Sir  Edwin  Arnold.^ 

4.  Address  by  Chauncey  M.  Depew  on  presenting  the  loving  cup 
to  Admiral  Dewey,  January  g,  1900: 

Admiral  Dewey:  Your  countrymen  are  ever  emulating  each 
other  in  the  conception  and  execution  of  something  which  will  show 
their  afifection  for  and  their  gratitude  to  you.  You  were  presented 
with  a  sword  by  an  admiring  and  grateful  country,  with  loving  cups 
by  municipalities  and  with  medals  by  states;  but  all  of  these  acts 
were  essentially  ceremonial  in  form. 

What  we  do  to-day  is  without  ceremony  or  official  character. 
It  is  simply  the  expression  of  seventy  thousands  of  men,  women,  and 
children  of  our  country  in  a  simple  way  of  their  affection,  respect  for, 
and  their  pride  in  Admiral  Dewey. 

One  of  the  significant  things  of  our  time  is  the  influence  of  the 
newspaper,  the  power  of  the  journal.  The  triumphs  of  Arctic  ex- 
ploration, scientific  advancement,  and  beneficent  reforms  originate 
very  often  in  the  brains  of  the  people  who  conduct  these  great  powers 
of  modern  thought  and  who  give  expression  to  the  general  idea.  It 
seems  as  if  the  myriad  fingers  by  which  the  press  reaches  out  and 
touches  every  form  of  opinion  and  feeling  enables  it  also  to  concen- 
trate in  a  happy  way  what  all  desire  and  give  to  it  definite  and  ma- 
terial form.  This  had  been  done  by  the  New  York  Journal,  which 
suggested  this  cup  for  you.  Admiral. 

The  artist  who  designed  it  has  put  in  permanent  and  beautiful 
form  the  love  of  seventy  thousands  who  contributed  their  ten  cent 
pieces  for  the  purpose  of  making  this  exquisite  memorial. 

If  you  were  a  politician,  sir,  and  had  aspiration  for  the  Presi- 
dency, I  fear  this  cup  would  be  a  serious  bar  to  your  advancement, 
because  one  of  the  critical,  crucial  dangers  of  the  time,  if  we  are  to 
believe  many  newspapers  and  orators,  is  the  contraction  of  the  cur- 

^  Chauncey  M.  Depew.    Orations,  Addresses,  and  Speeches,  III,  p.  200. 


READING    LESSON    XIII  279 

rency,  and  here  are,  sir,  actually  seventy  thousand  dimes  taken  out 
of  the  circulating  medium  of  the  countr>^ 

But  there  is  another  significance  in  this  gift.  .  .  .  Ever  since  the 
pocket  came  into  use  and  fashion  there  has  always  been  a  pocket 
piece.  This  is  a  charm,  carried  for  the  purpose  of  warding  off  rheu- 
matism and  the  devil,  .  .  .  and  of  promoting  good  fortune. 

In  this  cup  are  melted  up  the  dimes  of  a  great  many  elderly 
people  who  had  rounded  out  their  successful  lives  and  who  thought 
that  they  would  give  to  you  their  pocket  pieces  in  the  hope  that 
they  would  do  for  you  what  they  had  done  for  themselves,  that  you 
would  be  free  from  what  they  had  escaped,  and  that,  besides,  they 
would  transfer  to  you  good  luck  for  the  rest  of  your  life.  .  .  . 

As  you  look  at  this  cup  during  the  years  to  come,  you  will  know 
that  the  donors  from  every  state,  city,  town,  and  hamlet  of  your 
country  will  have  an  interest  in  your  home.  From  thousands  of 
homes,  in  everj^  prayer,  morning  and  evening,  there  will  be  an  aspira- 
tion for  long  life,  health,  and  happiness  for  Admiral  Dewey. 

5.  Portion  of  a  response  by  William  Ewart  Gladstone,  accepting 
a  chair  from  the  Liberals  of  the  Borough  of  Greenwich: 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen:  I  am  sure  you  will  think  I  shall 
best  discharge  my  duty  if  upon  this  occasion  I  confine  myself  to  the 
briefest  expression  of  thanks  for  this  last  and  newest  favor  which 
the  constituency  of  Greenwich  has  conferred  upon  me.  The  former 
favors  have  not  been,  and  cannot  be,  forgotten;  and,  although  our 
political  connection  as  constituency  and  representative  has  been 
dissolved,  yet  you  may  rely  upon  it  that  my  interest  in  your  wel- 
fare, which  was  enhanced  by  that  connection,  can  never  disappear. 
I  thank  you  greatly  for  this  new  mark  of  your  enduring  kindness.  I 
accept  it  with  jK-culiar  joy  and  jjleasure  on  this  auspicious  day,  in  the 
presence  of  Lord  Granville,  Lord  Harlington,  and  all  those  colleagues 
to  whose  powerful  cooperation  it  is  that  I  owe  my  being  able  to  appear 
before  you  with  the  conviction  that  I  have  not  disgraced  the  functions 
with  whi(h,  in  common  with  them,  I  am  charged. 

6.  Speech  of  Ihirry  Johnson  I'islier,  i)resenting  the  Cheney-Ives 
Gateway  to  Yale  University  on  behalf  of  the  Class  of  1896: 

President  Hadley  and  Yale  Men:    I  am  here  as  a  representative 


28o  ORAL  ENGLISH 

of  the  class  of  ninety-six,  to  present  to  you  this  gate.  In  its  stone 
and  iron  it  typifies  the  rugged  manliness  of  those  to  whose  lasting 
memory  it  has  been  erected.  That  is  our  wish.  To  you  who  are  now 
gathered  beneath  these  elms,  and  to  those  Yale  men  who  shall  follow 
after  us,  we  wish  this  memorial  to  stand  first  of  all  for  the  manhood 
and  courage  of  Yale.  In  the  evening  shadows  the  softer  lights  may 
steal  forth  and  infold  it,  but  through  the  daylight  hours  of  toil  and 
accomplishment  let  the  sun  shine  down  upon  it,  and  bring  out  each 
line  of  strength,  that  every  Yale  man  may  be  imbued  with  that  daunt- 
less spirit  which  inspired  these  two  sons  of  Yale  in  their  lives  and  in 
their  deaths. 

We  do  not  wish  you  merely  to  stand  before  this  memorial  and 
gaze  upon  it  as  a  monument.  We  want  every  one  of  you,  whether 
graduate  at  commencement  time  or  undergraduate  in  term  time,  to 
come  to  it  and  to  sit  upon  its  benches,  just  as  we  of  ninety-six  shall 
come  to  sit  during  the  advancing  years,  and,  in  the  coming,  keep 
always  alive  in  our  hearts  the  spirit  of  these  two  who  did  their  work 
and  held  their  peace,  and  had  no  fear  to  die.  That  is  the  lesson 
these  two  careers  are  singularly  fitted  to  teach  us.  To  the  one  came 
the  keenest  disappointment  of  staying  behind,  and  after  that  the 
toil,  the  drudgery,  and  the  sickness,  —  all  bravely  borne.  To  the 
other  it  was  given  to  meet  death  with  that  steadfast  courage  which 
alone  avails  to  men  who  die  in  the  long  quiet  after  the  battle.  It 
is  no  new  service  these  two  have  given  to  Yale.  Looking  back  to-day 
through  the  heritage  of  two  centuries,  these  names  are  but  added  to 
the  roll  of  those  who  have  served  Yale  because  they  have  served  their 
country. 

The  stone  and  iron  of  this  gate  will  keep  alive  the  names  of  these 
two  men.  It  is  our  hope  that  the  men  of  Yale  will,  in  their  own  lives, 
perpetuate  their  manhood  and  courage. 

7.  Speech  of  acceptance  of  the  Cheney-Ives  Gateway,  by  Arthur 
Twining  Hadley: 

Of  all  the  memorials  which  are  offered  to  a  university  by  the 
gratitude  of  her  sons,  there  are  none  which  serve  so  closely  and  fully 
the  purposes  of  her  life  as  those  monuments  which  commemorate  her 
dead  heroes.  The  most  important  part  of  the  teaching  of  a  place  like 
Yale  is  found  in  the  lessons  of  public  spirit  and  devotion  to  high  ideals 


READING    LESSON    XIII  281 

which  it  gives.  These  things  can  in  some  measure  be  learned  in 
books  of  poetry  and  of  history.  They  can  in  some  measure  be  learned 
from  the  daily  life  of  the  college  and  the  sentiments  which  it  incul- 
cates. But  they  are  most  solemnly  and  vividly  brought  home  by 
visible  signs,  such  as  this  gateway  furnishes,  that  the  spirit  of  ancient 
heroism  is  not  dead,  and  its  highest  lessons  are  not  lost. 

It  seems  as  if  the  bravest  and  best  in  your  class,  as  well  as  in 
others,  had  been  sacrificed  to  the  cruel  exigencies  of  war.  But  they 
are  not  sacrificed.  It  is  through  men  like  those  whom  we  have  loved, 
and  whom  we  here  commemorate,  that  the  life  of  the  republic  is  kept 
alive.  As  we  have  learned  lessons  of  heroism  from  the  men  who  went 
forth  to  die  in  the  Civil  War,  so  will  our  children  and  our  children's 
children  learn  the  same  lesson  from  the  heroes  who  have  a  little  while 
lived  with  us  and  then  entered  into  an  immortality  of  glory. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

SPEECHES   FOR   SOCIAL   OCCASIONS 

Introduction.  —  Business  men  and  others  sometimes 
meet  around  a  banquet  table  to  discuss  problems  of  a  very- 
serious  nature.  This  is  done  for  convenience  and  the  dis- 
cussion is  of  an  informal  and  sometimes  of  an  unsocial 
character.  Speeches  which  might  be  delivered  on  such 
an  occasion  follow  a  law  of  their  own  and  will  not  now  be 
considered.  The  after-dinner  speeches  that  we  shall 
study  are  such  as  would  be  appropriate  for  a  purely  social 
occasion,  one  in  which  good-fellowship  takes  the  place 
of  antagonism,  and  appreciation  of  others  is  substituted 
for  egotism. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  learn:  (i)  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  the  after-dinner  speech  and  (2)  the  special 
characteristics  of  three  different  sorts  of  speeches  which 
might  be  given  at  a  dinner. 

I.   General  Characteristics  of    the  After-Dinner 

Speech 

Unity.  —  In  the  first  place,  the  after-dinner  speech 
should  have  a  point  or  purpose,  and  should  not  consist 
merely  of  a  string  of  stories.  The  speaker  should  confine 
himself  to  one  idea  well  illustrated.  It  is  said  that  the 
secret  of  Senator  Hoar's  popularity  at  the  Harvard  Phi 
Beta  Kappa  dinners  was  that  his  speeches  contained  one 
original  idea,  clearly  stated,  and  one  fresh  story,  well  told. 
A  story  should  be  used  merely  to  enforce  a  point  which 


SPEECHES   FOR  SOCIAL  OCCASIONS  283 

has  been  made  and  not  as  an  end  in  itself.     "The  comic 
story  is  a  good  servant  but  a  bad  master." 

The  habit  of  threading  a  series  of  jokes  on  a  very  slen- 
der strand  of  thought  has  grown  out  of  the  notion  that 
an  after-dinner  speaker  must  play  the  role  of  humorist. 
This  idea  is  a  mistake;  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  the 
fitting,  agreeable  thing.  Brander  Matthews  says,  "Use- 
ful as  humor  may  be,  good  humor  is  even  more  useful." 
Weighty  subjects,  even,  may  be  handled  in  an  after-dinner 
speech,  if  treated  in  a  lighter  vein.  The  speaker  must  be 
careful,  however,  to  distinguish  between  lightness  and 
levity.  Lightness  is  an  agreeable  playfulness  which  is  not 
flippancy. 

Brevity.  —  In  the  second  place,  the  after-dinner  speech 
should  be  brief.  Considerable  responsibility  rests  with 
the  toastmaster  in  this  matter.  He  should  be  brief  and 
lively  himself  and  remind  others  to  be  so.  In  general, 
the  program  should  not  last  longer  than  an  hour  and  a 
half.  If  speeches  are  long  and  rambling,  we  are  inclined 
to  agree  with  James  Russell  Lowell  in  his  addition  to  the 
beatitudes,  "Blessed  is  he  who  has  nothing  to  say  —  and 
cannot  be  persuaded  to  say  it." 

Spontaneity.  —  In  the  third  place,  the  after-dinner 
speech  should  give  the  impression  of  not  having  been  pre- 
pared. There  is  no  variety  of  speech  in  which  the  word- 
outline  method  of  preparation  will  be  of  greater  service. 
This  method  will  enable  the  speaker  to  make  reference  to 
what  has  been  previously  mentioned  and,  in  this  way, 
greatly  increase  the  semblance  of  spontaneity.  The  style 
of  address,  also,  should  be  conversational  rather  than 
oratorical;  that  is,  the  majority  of  the  sentences  should 
be  loose  rather  than  periodic. 


284  ORAL  ENGLISH 

II.   Three   Sorts   of   After-Dinner   Speeches 

Speech  of  a  Representative.  —  Let  us  first  consider 
such  a  speech  as  might  be  delivered  by  the  representative 
of  one  group  of  people  before  another  group  of  people. 
Since  the  speaker  is  a  guest,  his  discourse  should  be  cour- 
teous and  even  complimentary  to  the  society,  institution, 
or  group  of  people  which  is  acting  as  his  host.  He  should 
thank  the  presiding  officer  for  any  words  of  welcome  which 
may  have  been  spoken,  and  express,  in  response,  the  cordial 
greetings  of  his  own  society.  I;i  so  doing,  it  is  well  to 
share  the  honor  which  he  has  received  with  those  whom  he 
represents.  Mr.  Bryce  says,  for  instance,  that  he  regards 
the  honor  of  speaking  before  the  Harvard  Alumni  as  an 
expression  of  warm  feeling  toward  his  own  country.  If 
the  speaker  makes  any  comparisons,  it  should  be  to  the 
detriment  of  his  own  organization.  Notice  the  comparison 
which  Mr.  Bryce  makes  between  the  wealth  of  British 
and  American  universities.  Notice  also  that  he  is  very 
careful  not  to  imply  that  English  traditions  are  finer  than 
ours,  since  we  might  be  sensitive  on  that  point. 

The  speaker  should  not  only  be  courteous  but  he  should 
embrace  every  opportunity  to  create  a  feeling  of  mutual 
understanding  and  sympathy.  The  unifying  thought 
may  be  merely  a  trivial  matter,  as  was  Mr.  Bryce's  refer- 
ence to  the  origin  of  the  songs  which  were  sung  at  the  meet- 
ing. The  speaker  may  discuss  the  progress  or  success 
of  the  two  organizations.  He  may  allude  to  their  common 
ideals  and  purposes.  This  was  done  by  Ehhu  Root,  as 
Representative  of  the  United  States  at  the  Third  Confer- 
ence of  American  Republics,  when  he  said,  "Unlike  as 
we  are  in  many  respects,  we  are  alike  in  this,  that  we  are 


SPEECHES   FOR  SOCIAL  OCCASIONS  285 

all  engaged  under  new  conditions  and  free  from  the  tra- 
ditional forms  and  limitations  of  the  Old  World,  in  working 
out  the  same  problem  of  popular  self-government." 

Welcome  Tribute.  —  Let  us  next  consider  a  speech  of 
welcome,  paying  tribute  to  an  honored  guest.  The  guest 
may  be  a  distinguished  foreigner  or  an  eminent  citizen 
who  is  traveling  through  his  own  country.  Such  a  speech 
may  also  be  given  on  the  occasion  of  a  man's  return  to  his 
home  city. 

The  principal  object  of  the  speech  is  to  express  apprecia- 
tion of  the  services  which  the  noted  guest  has  rendered 
to  society.  The  speaker  should  be  careful,  however,  not 
to  exaggerate  this  feature  of  the  address,  since  it  might 
cause  embarrassment  to  the  subject  of  his  remarks. 

Again,  historical  material  having  some  connection  with 
the  life  interest  of  the  visitor  is  always  appropriate.  A 
few  examples  will  help  to  make  this  point  clear.  Mr. 
Depew,  when  he  welcomed  Lieutenant  Shackleton  to  our 
country,  gave  a  brief  historical  review  of  arctic  and  ant- 
arctic exploration.  Lord  Coleridge,  in  a  tribute  to  Henry 
Irving,  told  what  actors  in  general  had  done  for  literature 
and  then  what  Irving  in  particular  had  done  for  Shake- 
speare. Mr.  Depew,  in  his  welcome  tribute  to  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold,  dwelt  upon  current  events  that  illustrated  the 
power  of  literary  men  to  maintain  amity  between  the 
nations. 

Presentation  and  Acceptance  of  a  Gift.  —  A  gift  is 
sometimes  presented  at  a  dinner  and  sometimes  upon  a 
more  formal  occasion,  such  as  graduation  exercises.  The 
principles  governing  the  selection  of  material  are,  however, 
the  same  in  both  cases. 

The  speaker  who  presents  the  gift  should  magnify  the 


286  ORAL  ENGLISH 

services  or  worth  of  the  recipient  and  minimize  the  value 
of  the  gift.  In  response,  the  recipient  of  the  gift  should 
express  his  appreciation  of  the  kindness  of  his  friends, 
minimize  the  value  of  his  own  services,  and,  if  possible, 
share  the  honor  with  the  others.  Gladstone  did  this 
in  his  response  to  the  Liberals  of  Greenwich.  These 
principles  apply  equally  to  the  presentation  of  a  class 
gift  at  graduation.  The  speaker  should  not  say  that  the 
gift  is  presented  in  order  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of 
his  class;  on  the  contrary,  he  should  present  it  as  an  ex- 
pression of  appreciation  for  value  received.  The  rule 
holds  good  even  when  the  gift  takes  the  form  of  a  monu- 
ment to  individual  members  of  the  class.  This  was  the 
situation  in  the  case  of  the  Cheney-Ives  Gateway,  but  it 
will  be  noticed  that  Mr.  Fisher  makes  it  clear  that  these 
were  but  two  among  many  who  had  followed  the  glorious 
traditions  of  Yale. 

Something  may  be  said,  also,  about  the  considerations 
which  governed  the  choice  of  the  gift,  provided  they  are 
complimentary  to  the  recipient.  The  speaker  will  also 
greatly  enhance  the  beauty  and  dignity  of  his  speech,  if 
he  will  go  beyond  the  material  qualities  of  the  gift  and 
discover  in  it  a  significance,  or  deeper  meaning.  An  illus- 
tration may  be  found  in  Mr.  Depew's  reference  to  the 
"pocket-piece."  Again,  this  idea  of  symbolism  is  the 
dominant  note  in  both  the  presentation  and  acceptance  of 
the  Cheney-Ives  Gateway. 

Conclusion.  —  In  this  chapter  we  have  studied  (i)  the 
general  characteristics  of  an  after-dinner  speech  and  (2) 
the  special  characteristics  of  three  different  kinds  of  after- 
dinner  speeches. 


SPEECHES   FOR   SOCIAL  OCCASIONS  287 

TOPICAL   OUTLINE 

Speeches  for  Social  Occasions 
Introduction. 

I.   What  is  meant  by  a  social  occasion. 
II.   Advance  summary. 
Body. 

I.   General  characteristics  of  the  after-dinner  speech. 

A.  Unity. 

1.  One  idea. 

(a)    Senator  Hoar. 

{b)    Right  and  wrong  use  of  the  story. 

2.  Origin  of  the  story  habit. 

(a)  Humor  and  good  humor. 
(h)    Weighty  subjects. 

B.  Brevity. 

1.  Toastmaster. 

2.  Length  of  program. 

3.  Lowell. 

C.  Spontaneity. 

1.  Method  of  preparation. 

2.  Style  of  address. 

II.  Three  sorts  of  after-dinner  speeches. 

A.  Speeches  of  a  representative. 

1.  Courtesy  to  hosts. 

((/)    Thanks  and  greetings. 

(b)  Honor  shared  with  others.  —  Br>xe. 

(c)  Comparisons. 

(i)    Universities. 
(2)    Traditions. 

2.  Mutual  understanding. 

((/)    Trivial  thought.  —  Songs. 

(b)    Progress. 

(( )    Common  purposes.  —  Root. 

B.  Welcome  tribute. 

1.  Occasions. 

2.  Object.  —  Warning. 

3.  Historical  material.  —  Examples. 


288  ORAL  ENGLISH 

II.     '  B.       3.        {a)   Lieutenant  Shackleton. 
{b)    Henry  Irving. 
(c)    Sir  Edwin  Arnold. 
C.    Presentation  and  acceptance  of  a  gift. 

1.  Occasions. 

2.  Attitude  of  presenter  and  recipient. 

{a)   Honors  shared.  —  Gladstone. 
{b)    Mistake  in  presentation  of  class  gift, 
(i)    A.  monument  not  an  exception. 

3.  Nature  of  the  gift. 

(a)    Motives  of  choice. 
{b)    Significance. 

1.  "Pocket  piece." 

2.  Cheney-Ives  Gateway. 
Conclusion. 

Exercise  I.  —  Read  the  chapter  and  be  able  to  recite  from  the 
topical  outline. 

Exercise  II.  —  Review  the  speech  of  Chauncey  M.  Depew  to  the 
vagrants,  and  answer  the  questions  which  follow.  This  speech  was 
chosen  for  study  because  of  its  unique  character.  An  after-dinner 
speaker  usually  addresses  people  of  his  own  class  in  society. 

1.  What  is  the  chief  difficulty  which  would  confront  a  man  of 
wealth  in  his  endeavor  to  speak  in  an  agreeable  way  on  a  social  occasion 
to  fifty  men  who  are  "down  and  out "  ? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  ideas  or  phrases  which  would  tend  to 
place  the  speaker  and  the  listeners  on  a  common  level. 

3.  Write  in  one  sentence  what  seems  to  be  the  point  or  purpose  of 
his  speech. 

4.  How  many  "jokes"  did  he  tell? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  humorous  or  playful  references. 

6.  Compare  the  style  of  language  with  that  used  by  the  same 
speaker  in  the  welcome  tribute  to  Sir  Edwin  Arnold. 

Exercise  III.  —  Imagine  that,  as  a  member  of  some  organization, 
you  are  the  guest  at  a  dinner  given  by  a  similar  organization  in  some 
other  city.  It  may  be  a  high-school  literary  society,  dramatic,  music, 
language,  art,  or  agricultural  club,  a  Christian  Endeavor,  Y.  M.  C.  A., 


SPEECHES   FOR   SOCIAL  OCCASIONS  289 

Y.  W.  C.  A.,  Chamber  of  Commerce,  or  lodge.     Prepare  a  three- 
minute  speech  which  would  be  suitable  for  such  an  occasion. 

Exercise  IV.  —  Select  some  great  character  of  the  present  day. 
Find  out  all  you  can  about  his  life  and  work  by  consulting  the 
Reader's  Guide,  Wlio's  Who,  and  the  card  catalogue.  Imagine  that 
some  organization  has  planned  a  dinner  in  his  honor  and  that  you 
have  been  asked  to  pay  tribute  to  him  in  an  address  of  welcome. 
Let  it  occupy  from  three  to  four  minutes. 

Exercise  V.  —  It  is  evident  that  some  gifts  are  presented  on  social 
occasions  and  others  upon  more  formal  occasions.  Select  a  situation 
from  the  following  list  and  prepare  a  presentation  speech  of  about 
three  minutes.  Then  imagine  that  you  are  the  recipient  of  the  gift 
and  prepare  a  one-minute  response: 

A.  Social  Occasions. 

1.  (a)   As  president  of  the  student  body,  present  a  gift  from 

that  organization  to  an  athletic  coach  in  recognition 
of  his  former  services.     He  is  obliged  to  give  up  the 
work. 
(b)    'Make  the  response  of  a  coach  under  such  circumstances. 

2.  (a)   In  behalf  of  a  Bible  Study  Class,  present  a  gift  to  your 

teacher. 
(b)   Accept  the  gift. 

3.  (a)    As  one  of  the  directors  of  a  company,  present  a  gift 

to  a  successful  manager  who  is  about  to  leave. 
(b)    Accept  the  gift. 

B.  Formal  Occasions. 

1.  (a)    Present  to  your  school  a  gift  from  your  graduating  class. 
(b)    .^s  president  of  the  student  body,  accept  a  gift. 

2.  (c)    As  president  of  a  Woman's  Patriotic  Society,  present  a 

flag  u>  I  he  student  body  of  a  high  school. 
(b)    As  president  of  the  student  body,  accept  the  flag. 

3.  (a)   As  representative  of  a  society  which  has  donated  the 

trophy,  present  a  cup  to  the  school  which  has  won  a 
series  of  debates. 
(b)    As  president  of  the  student  body  of  ihe  winning  school, 
accept  the  cup. 


290  ORAL   ENGLISH 

4.  (a)    As  leader,  manager,  or  captain  of  an  athletic  team, 

present  to  the  student  body  a  trophy  which  your 
team  has  won. 
(b)    As  president  of  the  student  body  or  as  trophy  keeper, 
accept  the  trophy  in  behalf  of  the  school. 

5.  (c)    As  president  of  a  student  body,  present  to  individual 

athletes  or  debaters   medals  or  other  emblems  of 
merit. 
(b)    It  is  not  customary  to  make  a  response  on  such  an 
occasion. 

Exercise  VI.  —  Let  the  class  be  divided  into  sections  of  six  or 
seven  members  each.  One  student  in  each  section  shall  be  chosen 
to  act  as  toastmaster.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  toastmaster  to  select 
subjects,  assign  them  to  the  members  in  his  section,  and  to  preside  at 
the  meeting  of  his  section.  He  may  imagine  that  the  occasion  is  a 
class  reunion,  or  any  other  social  function. 


APPENDIX  I 

Specimen  Outline  for  a  Student's  two-minute  Speech 

Salutation:   ISIembcrs  of  the  East  Side  Women's  Club. 
Theme  Sentence:   I  have  come  to  urge  you  to  join  with  us  in  a  move- 
ment for  early  Christmas  shopping. 

Word  Outline 


Introduction 


Body 


Thank 
Combining 


Shopgirls 


Conditions 


Urge 


Windows 

—  Mean 

Stories 
.  Wait 

Twelve 

5  —  one 

Crowded 

Woman 

Measuring 

Shifting 

Home         / 

Make 

\ 

Buy 

Machines  —  human 

Power  — 

duty 

Right 
Conclusion:   Show  —  Sign. 


Written  Speech 

Early  Cliristmus  Shopping 

Members  of  the  East  Side  Women's  Club:  I  I  hank  you  and  your 
worthy  President  for  the  opportunity  you  have  given  me  to  speak  to 
you  this  afternoon.  The  Women's  Clubs  of  the  West  Side  are  com- 
bining in  a  movement  for  early  Christmas  shopping  and,  as  their 
representative,  I  have  come  to  urge  you  to  join  with  us. 


292  ORAL   ENGLISH 

By  so  doing  you  can  express  the  true  Christmas  spirit  toward  the 
shopgirls  of  this  city.  What  do  we  mean  by  the  true  Christmas 
spirit?  Shop  windows,  magazine  covers,  and  postcards  all  express 
good  will  toward  men;  stories  told  to  sleepy  children  on  Christmas 
eve  are  filled  with  thoughts  of  peace  and  love.  Are  we  expressing 
this  spirit  when  we  wait  until  the  last  week  to  do  our  shopping  for 
Christmas? 

There  are  many  pitiable  conditions  in  our  large  department  stores. 
Let  me  tell  you  of  one  instance  which  came  under  my  observation.  It 
was  a  quarter  before  twelve  on  Christmas  eve.  The  large  store  was 
crowded  to  its  capacity  with  people  who  screamed  at  the  shopgirls 
.and  commanded  them  to  wait  upon  them.  Behind  the  ribbon  coun- 
ter was  a  young  woman,  scarcely  more  than  a  girl,  measuring  yards 
and  yards  of  ribbon  and  shifting  from  one  swollen  foot  to  the  other 
as  she  endeavored  to  wait  on  a  dozen  customers  at  once.  In  this 
woman's  home  was  a  sick  husband  and  a  little  child  who  prayed  to 
Santa  Claus  every  night  to  bring  her  a  doll  that  would  open  and  close 
its  eyes;  but  the  poor  little  mother  was  too  tired  when  she  reached 
home  after  her  work  to  make  anything  for  the  child.  She  could 
not  buy  anything,  for  every  cent  must  be  saved  for  necessities. 

These  shopgirls  have  a  right  to  their  holidays.  They  are  not 
machines,  wound  up  and  guaranteed  not  to  stop,  but  are  human 
beings  like  ourselves,  capable  of  getting  worn  out  and  capable  of 
enjoying  their  pleasures.  It  is  within  our  power  as  members  of  the 
Women's  Clubs  to  force  the  proprietors  of  these  stores  to  close  their 
doors  at  six  o'clock.     It  is  not  a  question  of  charity  but  of  duty. 

Women  of  the  East  Side,  I  appeal  to  you  to  show  in  this  way  your 
true  Christmas  spirit.  If  you  will  join  with  us,  sign  your  name  to 
this  resolution  which  I  shall  leave  with  your  President,  and  which 
will  be  sent  to  the  Club  Headquarters. 


APPENDIX  II 

Subjects  for  two-minute  Argumentative  or  Expository  Speeches  ' 

I.   School  Life 

The  Advantages  of  going  to  High  School. 

The  Course  I  intend  to  take  in  High  School. 

Should  One  Student  Report  Another  for  Cheating? 

Should  One  Student  Report  Another  for  Stealing  from  the  Coat 

Room? 
What  One  should  Think  about  in  Choosing  a  Vocation. 
Should  the  School  Paper  Follow  or  Form  Public  Opinion? 
One  Session  per  Day  is  Better  than  Two  in  a  High  School. 
Advantages  of  a  School  Cafeteria. 
WTiat  Reform  is  Most  Needed  in  our  Student  Body? 
Value  of  a  School  Bank. 
Value  of  a  School  Weekly. 

The  Country  Boy  has  Advantages  Superior  to  the  City  Boy. 
The  School  Initial  should  be  Granted  for  Success  in  Oratory  and 

Debate. 
Value  of  School  (jardcns. 

One  Reason  Why  High-school  Boys  should  not  Visit  Poolrooms. 
Teachers  should  not  Assign  any  Work  for  Vacation. 
The  School  Furnishes  a  Training  for  Citizenship. 
Should  two  Pupils  ever  Study  Together? 
The  Study  of  Algebra  should  not  I)e  made  Compulsory  in  High 

School. 
High-school  Students  should  Read  the  Newspapers. 
Letting  the  Other  Fellow  Lead. 

Differences  between  High  School  and  (Iramniar  School. 
Our  Debating  Society. 

'  These  subjects  as  well  as  tho.sc  in  .\[)i)cndix   IH   have  been   con- 
tributed mainly  by  leathers  in  the  dilJerenl  departments  represented. 


294  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Why  I  have  selected University. 

The  Dangers  of  High-school  Fraternities. 

Place  of  Social  Life  in  High  School. 

High-school  Girls  should  Wear  a  Uniform  Dress. 

Should  we  hold  Rallies  before  or  after  the  Games? 

Should  a  Student  Work  for  Four  Years  in  one  Activity? 

Rugby  versus  American  Football. 

Compulsory  Physical  Education  in  the  High  School. 

Should  Credit  toward  Graduation  be  Given  for  Athletic  Activities? 

Should  the  High  School  Limit  the  Number  of  Sports  in  which  a 

Student  may  Participate? 
Should  Athletic  Competitions  be  Intra-school  or  Inter-school? 
Is  Gymnasium  Work  or  Organized  Athletics  better  for  the  Average 

Individual? 
Are  we  Making  the  Winning  of  High-school  Monograms  too  Easy? 
Does  Participation  in  Athletics  Increase  or  Diminish  the  Scholastic 

Standing  of  High-school  Students? 
Are  High  Schools  Copying  too  Closely  the  Universities  in  their 

Management  and  Ideas  of  Athletics? 
Value  of  Gymnasium  Work  for  Girls. 
Value  of  Cadet  Drill. 
The  Benefits  of  Systematic  Exercise. 
The  Advisability  of  Faculty  Supervision  in  Athletics. 
The  Ideals  of  the  new  California  Interscholastic  Federation. 
The  Effect  of  Athletic  Sports  on  Morals. 
The  Educational  Value  of  Athletics. 
The  School's  Need  of  a  Modernly  Equipped  Gymnasium. 
The  Relative  Value  of  our  Various  Sports. 
The  Value  of  Freshman  Teams  in  High  School. 
Can  our  Alumni  Help  our  Teams  and  the  General  Tone  of  Ath- 
letics? 
The  Students  who  Work  in  the  Background  (Custodian  Committee, 

Student  Body  President,  and  Business  Manager  of  Paper). 
What  should  be  the  Work  of  an  Honor  Society? 
What  should  be  the  Purpose  of  a  Literary  Society? 
Possibilities  of  the  Junior  Chamber  of  Commerce. 
Credits  (not  more  than  lo)  should  be  Deducted  from  a  History 

(or  other)  Paper  for  Faulty  Composition. 


APPENDIX  II  295 

Examinations  are  Not  a  Fair  Test  of  Ability. 

Frequent  Written  Tests  should  be  Given  in  all  Subjects. 

One  should  Never  use  Slang. 

Slang  is  Sometimes  Justifiable. 

Basket-ball  is  an  Excellent  Exercise  for  Girls. 

Literar>'  Societies  are  a  Benefit  to  High-school  Pupils. 

Our  School  should  have  a  Larger  Faculty. 

An  "Honor  Society"  should  Require  a  Scholarship  Standard  as 
well  as  a  Record  of  Activity  in  Student  Affairs. 

Girls  Give  ]\Iore  to  the  Student  Body  Fund  than  Boys  and  Receive 
Less  from  it. 

Students  should  be  Allowed  School  Credit  for  Editing  the  School 
Paper  (or  for  Work  on  the  Debating  Team,  or  for  Participa- 
tion in  Dramatic  Performances). 

Reasons  Why  it  is  Difficult  to  Prepare  Monday's  Lessons. 

II.  Life  Outside  of  School 

The is  the  Best  Newspaper  in  the  City. 

Public  Libraries  should  be  Open  on  Sunday  Afternoon. 
Women  should  be  Appointed  as  Members  of  the  School  Board. 
Wild  Game  should  (or  should  not)  be  Protected. 
Why  Forests  should  be  Preserved. 
Motion  Pictures. 

Advantages  to  a  City  of  an  Exposition. 
Disadvantages  to  a  City  of  an  Exposition. 
Machincr>'  Used  in  the  Construction  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
Blasting  Rock. 

My  Objections  to  Card  Playing. 
How  Coal  is  Mined. 
A  Modern  Kitchen  Convenience. 
Loss  of  Sight  Makes  other  Senses  more  Acute. 
The  Rural  Delivery  of  Mail  is  a  Great  Boon  to  Farmers. 
Every  Boy  should  have  a  Workshop. 
Trolley  Roads  are  a  Great  Benefit  to  the  Country. 
Presence  of  Mind  often  Averts  Danger. 

Qualities  Necessary  to  Make  a  Gcxjd  Dressmaker.  (May  substi- 
tute any  other  vocation.) 


296  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Opportunities  for  Stenographers.  (May  substitute  any  other 
vocation.) 

Advantages  of  being  an  Engineer.  (May  substitute  any  other 
vocation.) 

Why  Girls  should  take  Music  Lessons. 

How  to  Care  for  Flowers. 

How  to  Make  a  Popgun. 

How  Ice  Cream  is  Made. 

Trout-fishing  is  an  Art. 

Labor-saving  Machinery  is  of  Permanent  Advantage  to  Man- 
kind, although  Temporarily  Detrimental  to  Laborers. 

How  to  Develop  a  Film.     (May  substitute  Print.) 

Why  I  Like  to  Hike.  (May  substitute  Fish,  Swim,  Hunt,  or  any 
other  favorite  sport.) 

A  Man  (or  Woman)  may  Reveal  his  Character  on  a  Street  Car. 

Appearance  and  Habits  of  the  English  Sparrow.  (May  substitute 
any  other  well-known  bird.) 

How  Golf  is  Played.     (May  substitute  any  other  game.) 

How  to  Prepare  a  Bed  in  the  Woods. 

How  to  Learn  to  Swim. 

There  is  a  Wrong  and  a  Right  Kind  of  Class  Spirit. 

How  to  Raise  Chrysanthemums. 

Something  which  Boy  Scouts  Learn. 

Manufacture  of  Glass  (Steel-rails,  Pencils,  or  other  object). 

What  to  Wear  for  a  Day's  Hike. 

What  to  Carry  on  a  Day's  Hike. 

The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Speaker. 

How  to  Make  a  Garden. 

How  to  Dry  Prunes. 

Benefit  of  Sleeping  Out  of  Doors. 

Use  of  the  Aeroplane  in  the  European  War. 

Society  for  the  Sale  of  Red  Cross  Stamps. 

Have  the  Modern  Dances  a  Value? 

How  to  Care  for  a  Horse.  (May  substitute  Incubator,  Goldfish, 
Poultry,  etc.) 

What  is  expected  of  a  Minister's  Daughter? 

What  is  expected  of  a  Minister's  Son? 

How  to  Set  Up  a  Tent. 


APPENDIX  II  297 

How  to  Build  a  Fire  in  the  Woods. 

How  to  Sail  a  Boat. 

How  to  Plant  a  Tree. 

How  to  Build  and  Launch  a  Raft. 

How  to  Hive  Bees. 

How  to  Break  a  Colt. 

How  Butter  is  Made  (Explain  to  City  Girls). 

The  Cost  and  Style  of  Commencement  Dresses  should  be  Regu- 
lated by  School  Authorities. 

How  to  Make  Beads. 

Erection  of  an  Amateur  Wireless  ^last. 

The  Average  Young  ]Man  of  To-day  has  Greater  Opportunities 
to  make  his  Life  a  Success  than  had  his  Forefathers. 

It  is  Better  to  Attend  a  Small  College  than  a  Large  One. 

It  is  Better  to  Work  One's  Way  through  College  than  to  Borrow 
the  Money  and  Pay  it  Back  after  Graduation. 

Schools  should  Observe  Peace  Day. 

Frequent  Tests  should  be  Substituted  for  Term  Examinations. 

Habits  of  the  Alligator.     (May  substitute  some  other  animal.) 

III.   English 
Ninth  Year 

How  the  Disinherited  "  Knight  Secured  his  Horse  and  Armor  for 

the  lourney." 
The  Treatment  of  Jews  in  King  Richard's  Time. 
Scottish  Life  is  Interesting. 
Reasons  Why  I  should  Study  Literature. 
Reasons  Why  I  should  Study  Written  Composition. 
Reasons  Why  I  should  Study  Oral  Composition. 
The  Study  of  Myths  is  Worth  While. 
Reasons  Why  Memory  Work  should  be  Required. 
The  Main  Features  of  a  Short  Story. 
How  to  Increase  one's  Vocabulary. 
The  Tournament. 
Organization  of  Locksley's  Men. 
Feeling  between  the  Saxons  and  the  Normans. 
The  Archery  Contest. 
Customs  of  Homer's  Time. 


298  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Tenth  Year 

Manners  in  Shakespeare's  Time. 

Classes  of  People  in  Shakespeare's  Time. 

Means  of  Travel  and  Communication  in  Shakespeare's  Time. 

Dress  of  Men  and  Women  in  Shakespeare's  Time. 

Condition  of  the  Theater  in  Shakespeare's  Time. 

Origin  of  the  Drama. 

The' Duty  of  an  Educated  Man  according  to  George  William  Curtis. 

The  Desires  of  King  Arthur. 

Lincoln's  Training  in  Oratory. 

The  Morality  Play. 

Special  Fitness  of  Lincoln  as  a  Leader  of  the  Nation  in  1861. 

Shakespeare's  Caesar  compared  with  the  Historical  Caesar. 

Was  King  Arthur's  Life  a  Failure? 

Why  did  Brutus  rather  than  Cassius  see  the  Ghost? 

Lincoln's  Attitude  toward  Slavery. 

Brutus  was  (or  was  not)  Sincere  in  the  Reasons  he  Gave  for  Join- 
ing the  Conspiracy. 

Which  would  have  been  the  Better  Leader  of  the  Conspiracy, 
Brutus  or  Cassius? 

Was  Gradual  Emancipation  of  the  Slaves  a  Good  Solution  of  the 
Slavery  Problem? 

Lincoln's  Views  on  Woman  Suffrage. 

Eleventh  Year 

Absurdities  of  the  Plot  of  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 

The  Magazine  in  American  Literature. 

Humor  in  American  Literature. 

Influence  of  the  Puritan  Conscience  on  American  Literature. 

Historical  Tendency  in  American  Literature. 

Early  American  Histories. 

Cotton  Mather's  Work. 

The  Literary  Aims  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

PoHtical  Writings  during  the  Revolutionary  Period. 

Difference  between  the  Transcendentalist  Ideas  and  Anti-slavery 

Ideas. 
Orators  among  Anti-slavery  Writers. 
Why  there  was  Little  Writing  in  the  South. 


APPENDIX   II  299 

The  Early  Masque. 

London  Coffee-houses  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

La  Marseillaise. 

Elegiac  Poetry. 

Characteristics  of  the  Early  Novel. 

Human  Life  is  the  Subject  Matter  of  Literature. 

Effect  of  Eppie  on  Silas  Marner. 

Art  of  George  Eliot  in  Portraying  Personalities. 

Art  of  George  Eliot  in  Portraying  Rustic  Life. 

Reality  of  the  Characters  in  Silas  Marner. 

How  Lycidas  Came  to  be  Written. 

Value  of  a  Course  in  Grammar. 

Twelfth  Year 

Carlyle's  Style  in  His  Essay  on  Burns. 

Burke's  Objections  to  the  Use  of  Force. 

Burke's  Discussion  of  the  Importance  of  the  Colonies. 

Burke's  Discussion  of  the  Spirit  of  Liberty  in  the  Colonies, 

Development  of  the  Masque. 

Forms  of  Poetry  —  Epic,  Lyric,  and  Dramatic. 

Burke's  Policy  in  Regard  to  Treatment  of  Colonies  has  been  Justi- 
fied by  Subsequent  E.xperience  in  America,  Canada,  and  South 
Africa. 

I\'.   History 
Ancient  History 

Ancient  Ways  of  Preserving  the  Dead. 

Religion  of  the  Babylonians. 

Religion  of  the  Egyptians. 

Phctnician  Trades. 

Great  National  Games  of  the  Greeks. 

Greek  Festivals. 

Training  of  Spartan  Boys. 

Laws  of  Draco. 

One  of  Solon's  Reforms. 

Greek  Education. 

Marriage  among  the  Greeks. 

How  I  Prepare  my  History  Lesson. 

Social  Classes  in  Rome. 


300  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Licinian  Laws. 

Education  of  Early  Romans. 

Medieval  and  Modern  History 

The  Feudal  System. 

Rise  of  Towns. 

Schools  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Efifects  of  the  Crusades. 

Medieval  Commerce  (Guilds). 

The  Siberian  Exile  System. 

Peter's  Reforms. 

Rise  of  the  Nations  against  Napoleon. 

European  Struggle  for  Constitutional  Government. 

Causes  of  the  French  Revolution. 

Markets  and  Fairs. 

How  a  Medieval  Town  Looked. 

Chivalry. 

Medieval  Warfare. 

The  Cathedral  Movement. 

Character  and  Career  of  Saladin. 

Dress,  Arms,  and  Habits  of  the  Crusader. 

The  Religious-Military  Orders. 

English  History 

Navigation  Acts  of  1651. 

Importance  of  Anglo-Saxon  Conquest. 

Queen  Elizabeth  as  a  Patron  of  Art  and  Literature. 

Methods  by  which  William  the  Conqueror  Established  his  Rule. 

Importance  of  the  Magna  Carta. 

Causes  and  Results  of  the  Peasants'  Revolt. 

Means  used  by  Henry  VII  to  Establish  a  Centralized  Government. 

Effect  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  upon  English  Commerce  and 

Trade. 
Importance  of  the  Bill  of  Rights. 
Importance  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 
Work  of  the  Wesleys  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
The  Stuart  Kings  were  Arbitrary  Rulers. 


APPENDIX  II 


301 


United  States  History 

Why  did  the  English  Surpass  in  Colonization? 

The  American  Indian  has  been  Unjustly  Treated. 

The  Justification  of  the  American  Revolution. 

Our  Debt  to  Foreigners  in  the  Revolution. 

The  Development  of  the  Union  before  1789. 

The  Defective  Government  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

The  Compromises  of  the  Constitution,  why  Necessary? 

States  Rights  versus  National  Sovereignty. 

The  Westward  Movement  —  Its  Effect  on  American  Civilization. 

V.  Latin 

The  Study  of  Latin  Helps  us  Better  to  Understand  our  own  Lan- 
guage and  Other  Languages. 

A  Knowledge  of  Latin  is  of  Practical  \'alue. 

Cicero's  Action  in  Putting  to  Death  the  Conspirators  was  Illegal. 

Catiline  was  not  a  Traitor  and  Cicero's  Arraignment  of  Him  was 
for  Political  Effect  and  not  a  Patriotic  Action. 

Roman  Miiitar^^  Tactics. 

Roman  Provinces  and  Their  Covcrnmcnt. 

The  Lack  of  Interest  in  the  Classics  is  to  be  Deplored. 


Chemistry 
Acids 

Bases: 
Salts 


\T.   Science 

What  are  they? 
How  detected? 
Properties. 

Relation  to  acids. 

How  found? 

Relation  to  bases  and  acids. 


Sub-topics 
suggestive  — 
not  limiting. 


Flame  tests. 

Composition  by  volume. 
Water      Composition  by  weight. 

Solution  properties. 
Discovery  of  the  rare  gases  in  the  air. 


302  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Physical  Geography 

Construction,  Operation,  and  Use  of  a  Barometer. 

Forecasting  of  Weather. 

Study  of  a  Piece  of  Coal. 

Soil  Requirements  —  Tests. 

Importance  of  the  Ocean. 

The  Making  of  a  Cave. 

The  Work  of  Carbon-dioxide  Gas. 

The  Importance  that  Floodplains  have  Played  in  the  World's 

History. 
Effect  of  Mountains  on  Races. 
Growth  of  a  Continent. 
Highways  of  Commerce. 
The  Ocean's  Depth  and  Temperature. 
Causes  of  Tides. 
A  Tornado. 

Biology 

Value  of  Physiology  as  a  Study. 

Effect  of  Alcohol  on  the  Human  Body. 

How  a  Habit  is  formed. 

Why  One  Should  Eat  Slowly. 

Natural  Defense  of  the  Human  Body  against  Harmful  Bacteria. 

Bota7iy 

Bacteria. 

Evolution  of  Plant  Life. 

Economic  Plants. 

How  New  Species  of  Plants  are  Developed. 

IMushrooms. 

Our  Wild  Flowers. 

How  Plants  Protect  Themselves  from  Enemies. 

An  Experiment  in  Botany. 

Grafting. 

Buds  on  Stems. 

\^eining  of  Leaves. 

Leaf  Arrangement. 

Movements  of  Leaves. 

Structure  of  Leaves. 


APPENDIX  II  303 

How  Plants  Receive  Air. 

How  Plant  Seeds  are  Scattered. 

Successions  of  Plants. 

Autumn  Coloration. 

Branching  of  Stems. 

Structure  of  Stems. 

Distribution  of  Plants. 

Uses  of  Plants  to  People. 

The  Fall  of  the  Leaf. 

How  Plants  Manufacture  Their  Food. 

Drought-tolerating  Plants. 

Weeds. 

Vegetation  of  Newly  Made  Land. 

How  Overcrowding  Kills  Plants. 

The  Grouping  of  Plants  around  a  Pond. 

Water  Plants. 

Starch. 

Stored  Food  in  the  Seed. 

How  Seeds  Grow. 

Hairs  on  Leaves. 

Plant  Roots. 

Value  of  Cells. 

Physics 

Physics  has  a  Practical  Value  for  Boys. 

Physics  has  a  Practical  Value  for  Girls. 

Explain  a  Simple  Machine. 

Heat  Expansion  and  Transmission. 

Heat  Engines. 

Law  of  Conservation  of  Energy. 

Magnetism. 

An  Application  of  Electricity. 

Some  Physical  Laws  of  Sound. 

Electric  Waves. 

\11.   Commercial 
Typing  and  Business 

What  is  a  Bank  Check? 

How  a  Saleslady  Can  Show  Good  Taste  and  Good  Manners. 


304  ORAL   ENGLISH 

What  a  Saleslady  Should  Know  about  her  Stock. 

Typewriting  as  an  Asset  in  the  Business  World. 

Coordination  of  Typewriting,  English,  SpeUing,  and  all  Technical 

and  Scientific  Studies. 
The  "Touch"  Typist  versus  the  "Sight"  Operator. 
Value  of  a  Commercial  Education. 
Advantages  of  Actual  Practice  in  Bookkeeping. 
Attitude  in  Business. 
Principles  of  Double  Entry  Bookkeeping. 
Qualifications  of  the  Business  IVIan  (or  Woman)  of  To-day. 
Relation  of  Penmanship  to  Business. 
Value  of  Commerical  Arithmetic  in  Business. 
Value  of  Rapid  Calculation  in  Business. 
Graduation,  from  a  High  School  is  of  Value  to  the  Boy  or  Girl  who 

Goes  into  Business. 
A  Student  should  Learn  Tj'pewriting  before  Going  to  College. 

Commercial  Geography,  History,  and  Law 

America  will  Always  be  Supreme  as  a  Manufacturing  Nation. 

Origin  of  our  Commercial  Laws. 

Influence  of  Fishing  Industr>''  in  the  Upbuilding  of  the  Nation. 

Influence  of  the  Fur  Industry  in  the  Upbuilding  of  the  Nation. 

Influence  of  Lumber  Industry  in  the  Upbuilding  of  the  Nation. 

Economic  Basis  of  the  Civil  War. 

Commerce  and  IVIoney  in  Colonial  Days. 

Character  of  Immigration. 

The  Industrial  Revolution. 

The  Human  Element  in  Commerce. 

Law  of  Decreasing  Returns  as  AppHed  to  Nations. 

How  Commerce  Depends  upon  Economic  Forces. 

Explain  any  Industry. 

Growing  Commercial  Opportunities  in  Latin-America. 


VIII.   Manual  Arts 
Ari  Crafts 

How  to  Make  a  Simple  Basket. 
The  Origin  of  Basketry. 


APPENDIX  II  305 

Reed  —  Where   Found,    Preparations   for   IMarket,    and   Use   in 

Basketr>\ 
Raffia  —  Where   Found,   Preparations  for  IMarket,   and   Use  in 

Basketry. 
The  Economic  \'alue  of  Copper. 
The  Use  of  IMetal  in  Early  Ages. 
The  Value  of  the  Study  of  Design. 
How  to  Color  a  Piece  of  Copper. 
Decoration  should  be  Subordinate  to  Utility. 
Enameling. 
The  Use  of  the  Fetch  Pan. 

Wood  Work 

Lumbering  in  the  North. 

The  Art  of  Pattern-making. 

The  Manufacture  of  Glue  or  Sandpaper. 

The  Art  of  Molding. 

The  Advantages  of  Machinery  in  the  Wood  Shop. 

Wood-finishing  as  an  Art. 

Mechanical  Drawing 

Drawing  Instruments  and  Their  Uses. 

Why  Free-hand  Drawing  should  Precede  Mechanical  Drawing. 
The  Correct  Method  for  the  Making  of  a  Working  Drawing  of  a 
Chair. 

Wood-turning 

The  Designing  and  Turning  up  of  a  Pair  of  Indian  Clubs. 
The  Designing  and  Turning  up  of  a  Picture  Frame. 
Wood-turning  Tools  and  Their  Uses. 

IX,  HoAfE  Economics 
Cooking 

Bread  Making. 

Pastry. 

Cake. 

Candy  —  Cream  Candies. 

Fruit  Canning. 

Jelly  Making. 


3o6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Macaroni  Manufacture. 

Girls  should  Study  Domestic  Science. 

Table  Service 

Digestible  Menus. 

Eating  Habits  worth  Cultivating  and  Preserving. 

Three  Styles  of  Serving  Meals. 

Setting  the  Table. 

Points  to  be  Remembered  in  Serving  all  Meals. 

General  Rules  for  Waiting  on  a  Table. 

Housing 

Advantages  of  Owning  a  Home. 
Disadvantages  of  Owning  a  Home. 
Cost  of  Rental  and  its  Variations. 
Things  to  Consider  in  Building  in  a  City. 
Functions  of  Rooms. 
Kitchen  Furnishings. 
Labor-saving  Devices. 
Value  of  a  Family  Budget. 


X.  Fine  Arts 

History's  Debt  to  Art. 

How  Environment  Influences  Art. 

Value  of  a  Course  in  Drawing. 

Nature's  Suggestions  for  Design  Material. 

Art  Study  as  a  Training  for  Appreciation. 

Art  Study  as  a  Training  for  Observation. 

Art   History  —  Comparison  (Egyptian,  Turkish,  and  Roman  Art) 

and  Difference. 
Our  Heritage  from  the  Greek. 
Our  Heritage  from  the  Roman. 
Our  Heritage  from  the  Gothic. 
The  Gothic  Period  —  Why  Distinctive,  etc. 
Color  Harmonies  —  How  Obtained,  Nature,  Use,  etc. 
Italian  Painting. 


APPENDIX  II  307 

Dutch  Painting. 

Some  Historic  Decorative  Motifs  —  Their  Evolution. 

Public  Taste  —  How  and  WTiy  it  should  be  Educated. 


XI.  Music 

Value  of  Studying  Music  and  Pubhc  Speaking  Together. 

IMusical  Histor>'  Helps  us  to  Appreciate  Music. 

Should  ISIusic  in  some  Form  be  Required  in  High  School? 

Mexican  Music. 

Meaning  of  Classical  Music. 

Music  as  a  Moral  and  Religious  Force. 

Place  and  Scope  of  so-called  Popular  Music. 

Music  of  the  Ancients. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Mechanical  Music. 

Oratorio  compared  \\'ith  the  Opera. 

Folk  Songs. 

The  Influence  of  Ancient  Greek  Music  on  the  Music  of  To-day. 

Primitive  Music. 

The  Origin  and  Development  of  the  Opera. 

Why  Roman  Music  Died  Out. 

How  Grecian  Music  was  kept  Alive. 

How  we  Know  Anything  of  the  JNIusical  History  of  Eg>'pt. 

Greek  Instruments. 

Richard  Wagner's  Operas. 

Opera  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

The  Chant. 

The  Pianoforte. 

Growth  of  the  Orchestra. 

Music  in  Scandinavia  and  Russia. 

The  Violin. 

Recent  Composers. 

Italian  Music. 

American  Music. 

The  EfTect  of  Christianity  on  Music. 

Chinese  Music. 

Church  Music. 

Music  of  the  Future. 


3o8  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Handel's  Orchestra. 
Growth  of  Symphony. 


XII.   Agriculture 

The  Work  of  the  Leaves. 

The  Work  of  the  Roots. 

Insect  Enemies  of  the  Farmer. 

Propagation. 

Different  Methods  of  Irrigation. 

Benefits  of  Clover  Crops. 

Birds  are  (or  are  not)  Beneficial  to  the  Farmer. 

Uses  of  Lime  in  Correcting  Poor  Soils. 

The  Soil: 

1 .  How  Formed. 

2.  Mineral  Content. 

3.  Animal  Content. 

4.  FertiHty. 

Farmers  should  Study  Scientific  Agriculture. 


APPENDIX  III 

Subjects  for  two-minute  Narrative  and  Descriptive  Speeches 

I.  English 
Ninth  Year 

The  Duel  between  Roderick  Dhu  and  Allan  Graeme. 

The  Black  Knight's  Journey  to  the  Tourney. 

The  "Death"  of  Athelstane. 

The  Story  of  Mad  Blanche. 

Some  Interesting  Scotch  Manners  and  Customs. 

Description  of  Brian,   the   Hermit,   Roderick   Dhu,  James  Fitz 

James,  Ellen,  the  Loch  Katrine  Country. 
The  Myth  I  Like  Best. 
Description  of  Ellen's  Isle. 
Attack  on  the  Castle  of  Front  de  Boeuf. 
The  Trial  by  Combat. 
Cedric's  House. 
An  Old  English  Castle. 
The  Tournament. 

Locksley's  Shooting  before  Prince  John. 
The  Knight  and  the  Friar. 
Cedric  and  Athelstane. 
At  John's  Banquet. 
Trial  of  Rebecca  at  Templestowe. 
Characters  of  Rebecca  and  Rowena  Compared. 
The  Templar  (or  other  character). 
Rebecca's  Trial. 

Tenth  Year 

One  of  the  Pictures  in  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village. 
Comparison  of  Shakespeare's  Heroines  (Rosalind  and  X'iola). 


3IO 


ORAL   ENGLISH 


Stratford  (Shakespeare's  Town  and  Times): 

1.  Trinity  Church. 

2.  Shakespeare's  House. 

3.  The  Grammar  School. 
Character  of  Coleridge. 
Goldsmith's  Early  Life. 

Some  Good  Points  in  the  Character  of  Cassius. 
The  Ancient  Mariner's  Story. 
Story  of  Elaine. 

The  Casting  Away  of  Excalibur. 
Gareth's  First  Quest. 
Life  of  Some  Successful  Man  or  Woman. 
Adventure  of  Launcelot. 

Eleventh  Year 

From  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables : 

The  Old  Pyncheon  Family. 

Description  of  Hepzibah's  Shop. 

The  Daguerreo typist. 

Description  of  Jaffrey  Pyncheon. 

Description  of  Phoebe  Pyncheon. 

Description  of  ClifTord  Pyncheon. 

The  Pyncheon  Garden. 

The  Death  of  Jaffrey  Pyncheon. 
Moses  at  the  Fair.     {Vicar  of  Wakefield.) 
Character  of  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 
The  Story  of  Orpheus. 
The  First  English  Novel. 
Anecdotes  of  Goldsmith's  Eccentricities. 
Any  one  of  Dickens'  Sketches  by  Boz. 
My  Favorite  Hero  in  Fiction. 

Twelfth  Year 

Character  Sketches  of  Burns,  Thomas  Carlyle,  Edmund  Burke, 

Lord  North,  or  George  IH. 
Dr.  Johnson's  Literary  Club. 
Wordsworth  as  a  Nature  Poet. 


Irving's  Life  of 

Goldsmith. 
BosweU's  Life  of 

Johnson. 


APPENDIX  III 


311 


II.   History 

The  student  may  describe  the  personal  appearance  or  traits  of 
character  of  some  great  historical  personage,  or  he  may  relate  the 
story  of  some  great  event.  The  following  are  merely  suggestive. 
The  student  may  choose  any  other  which  he  can  handle  in  a  more 
picturesque  or  dramatic  way. 


Ancient  History 

Characters 
Pericles. 
Socrates. 
Alexander  the  Great. 

Medieval  and  Modern  History 
Characters 
Charlemagne. 
Peter  the  Great. 
Frederick  the  Great. 

English  History 

Characters 
Henry  II. 
Queen  Elizabeth. 
William  Gladstone. 

United  States  History 
Characters 
Benjamin   Franklin,  the  Diplo- 
mat. 
Andrew   Jackson,    the   Popular 

Idol. 
Horace  Greeley,  Prince  of  Ameri- 
can Journalism. 


Events 
Battle  of  Thermopylae. 
March  of  the  Ten  Thousand. 
Hamiibal's  March  into  Italy, 


Events 
The  Children's  Crusade. 
An  Event  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution. 
The  Battle  of  Waterloo. 

Events 
The  Killing  of  Becket. 
Battle  of  Trafalgar. 
A  Crisis  in  Parliament. 
Scott's  Dash  to  the  Pole. 

Events 
The  Sinking  of  the  Mcrrimac. 
Assassination  of  Lincoln. 
Reconstruction  Days. 
A  Story  of  Guerilla  Warfare  in 
the  Phiiijjpines. 


312  ORAL  ENGLISH 

III.  Ancient  or  Modern  Languages 

1.  Description  of  a  character  or  a  scene  studied  in  a  foreign 

tongue. 

2.  Narration    of    a    simple   story   translated    from    some    other 

language.     (Use  imagination  to  embellish  and  make  more 
elaborate.) 

IV.   School  Life 

A  Teacher  Whom  I  Shall  Remember. 

The  School  Cafeteria  on  a  Rainy  Day. 

Description  of  the  School  Farm. 

Getting  Ready  for  the  Party. 

Cleaning  up  After  the  Party. 

How  the  Faculty  played  Baseball.  ' 

My  First  Punishment  in  School. 

What  Happened  on  the  School  Picnic. 

Bonfire  before  the  Big  Game. 

The  Last  Inning. 

An  Hour  in  the  Study  Hall. 

School  Building  during  Vacation  (comparison). 

The  Assembly  Hall  at  Lunch  Time. 

V.  Outside  of  School 

Missing  the  Train. 

A  Joke  on  Myself. 

Teaching  a  Calf  to  Drink. 

Our  Embroidery  Club. 

A  Trip  to  the  City. 

An  Experience  with  a  Tramp. 

A  Building  (lighthouse,  fort,  or  an  old  landmark). 

A  Spelling  Match. 

A  Clam  Bake. 

A  View  from  the  Summit. 

The  Deacon. 

In  the  Woods  at  Night. 

Disturbing  a  Hornet's  Nest. 


APPENDIX  III 


3^3 


An  Intelligent  Dog. 

The  Irate  Conductor. 

Lost  in  the  Woods. 

An  Amusing  Adventure. 

A  Glimpse  of  the  President. 

A  LandsHde. 

Yesterday's  Walk. 

A  Lonesome  Spot. 

What  "Central"  sees  of  the  World. 

A  Great  Waterfall. 

Tell  to  a  child :    Jack  the  Giant  Killer,  Puss  in  Boots,  or  any  other 

story. 
A  Lost  Child. 

With  a  Veteran  of  the  Civil  War. 
Arrival  of  the  Stagecoach. 

My  first  Donkey  Ride  (horseback,  bicycle,  auto,  stagecoach,  etc.). 
An  Accident. 
Making  a  Boat. 

My  First  Experiment  in  the  Kitchen. 
April  Fool. 
My  Play  House. 

How  I  Got  the  Worst  of  the  Trade. 
All  Alone  in  the  House. 
Hiving  the  Bees. 
A  Hallowe'en  Prank. 
A  Harvest  Scene. 
A  Country  Church. 
Decorating  for  Easter. 
A  Mountaineer. 
A  Hermit. 
Our  Washerwoman. 
A  Morning  in  the  Country. 
When  Brother  Forgot  his  Speech. 
How  my  Bravery  was  Tested. 
Breaking  a  Colt. 
Sleighing. 

My  Favorite  Hero  in  Fiction. 
Choir  Practice  Last  Saturday. 


314  ORAL  ENGLISH 

A  Newsboy. 

A  True  Ghost  Story. 

An  Attempt  to  See  the  Sunrise. 

My  First  Fight. 

How  I  Study. 

A  Duck  Hunt.     (Substitute  a  Fishing  Trip  or  other  Hunt.) 

Buying  a  Hat. 

A  Visit  to  Grandmother's. 

How  I  Spent  a  Rainy  Day. 

An   Interesting    Conversation   (Two    Women    in  a    Street  Car, 

Buying  a  Ticket,  Meeting  an  Old  Acquaintance). 
How  I  Earned  a  Dollar. 
The  Facts  About  a  Certain  Strike. 

A  Visit  to  a  Sugar  Camp  (Packing-house,  or  Factory  of  any  kind). 
An  Act  of  Courtesy. 
Speaking  My  First  Piece. 
My  First  Business  Experience. 
The  Marshmallow  Roast. 
A  Cruise  in  a  Canoe. 
Animals  I  Have  Known. 
The  Japanese  Store. 
An  Old  Mission. 

A  Mountain  Valley  in  the  Sierras  (or  other  mountains). 
The  Swimming  Pool. 
Our  Attic. 

The  Letter  that  Upset  Our  Plans. 
The  Policeman. 
The  Circus  Crowd. 
Our  Garden. 
The  Skating  Rink. 
A  Second-hand  Store. 
A  Kindergarten  Room. 
My  Sunday-school  Class. 
The  Village  Grocery  on  a  Winter  Evening. 
A  Newspaper  Cartoon. 
My  Friend. 

A  Deserted  Farmhouse. 
The  Crowd  on  Election  Night. 


APPENDIX  III  315 


My  Favorite  Picture. 

A  Dandelion  (or  some  other  flower). 

A  Street  IMusician  I  Have  Seen. 

An  Interesting  Advertisement. 

When  School  is  Over. 

The  Morning  After  the  Storm. 

My  New  Dress. 

A  Shop  Window. 

The  \'iew  from  my  Window, 

Our  Back  Yard. 

The  Circus  Parade. 

The  Park  on  a  Holiday. 

The  City  from  a  Height. 

Up-town  the  Night  After  Christmas. 

An  Attractive  Magazine  Cover. 

The  Crowd  on  New  Year's  Eve. 

In  a  Railway  Station. 

Field  Day  (Boat  Race  or  other  Contest). 

The  Bathing  Beach,  or  A  Trip  to  the  Seashore. 

When  my  Pet  Died  (dog,  rabbit,  lamb,  etc.). 

A  Forest  Fire. 

The  First  Snowfall. 

An  Act  of  Kindness. 

A  Heroic  Deed. 

A  Street  Car  Incident. 

Among  the  Fakirs. 

A  Local  Politician. 

An  Old  Bookstore. 

Wailing  at  the  Ferryboat. 

A  Peculiar  Sect. 

Noon  Hour  on  the  Farm. 

The  Engine  Room  of  an  Ocean  Steamship. 

The  Football  Player  Before  and  After  the  Game. 

The  Forest  Before  and  After  the  Fire. 

The  Feelings  of  the  Victors  and  the  Vanquished. 

June  and  November. 

City  Street  at  6  a.m.  and  at  6  p.m. 

A  Legend  of  Our  Neighljorhood. 


Contrasts. 


31 6  ORAL  ENGLISH 

The  Abandoned  Mill. 

My  Experience  in  Canvassing. 

Why  I  Didn't  Play  Football. 

A  Visit  to  "The  Zone"  in  1915. 

A  Historic  Spot. 

An  Auto  Accident. 

My  First  Chemical  Experiment. 

A  Balky  Horse. 

A  Notable  Mansion. 

A  Strange  Animal  of  the  Past. 

A  Fellow  Commuter. 

On  the  Mountain  Top. 

The  Organ  Grinder. 

A  Parisian  Gown. 

A  Suit  of  Armor  in  a  Museum. 

The  Village  Post  Office  at  Mail  Time. 

After  Church  Service. 

Ballroom  during  the  Dance. 

After  the  Fire. 

Launching  the  Ship. 

As  the  Ship  Left  Port. 

A  Bargain  Sale. 

The  Play  is  Over. 

The  Assembly  Hall  at  Lunch  Time. 

A  Mountain  Climb. 

A  Journey  in  the  Air. 

A  Race  against  Time. 

In  the  Path  of  the  Flood. 

The  Contest  for  the  Medal. 

Adrift  on  the  Bay. 


APPENDIX  IV 

Specimen  Introduction  to  a  Debate 

Introduction  to  Lincoln's  Address  at  Cooper  Institute,  New  York, 
February  27,  i860.  F.  B.  Robinson  refers  to  this  address  as  one  of 
the  most  perfectly  constructed  arguments  on  record.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent example  of  an  introduction  to  a  debate.  The  student  should 
notice  the  following  features: 
I.    It  is  mild  in  spirit. 


It  states  that  upon  which  both  sides  are  agreed. 

It  gives  a  clear  definition  of  all  terms. 

It  asks  questions  and  answers  them,  thus  securing  force. 

It  states  the  issue. 


Mr.  President  and  Fellow  Citizens  of  New  York :  The  facts  with 
which  I  shall  deal  this  evening  are  mainly  old  and  familiar;  nor  is 
there  anything  new  in  the  general  use  I  shall  make  of  them.  If 
there  shall  be  any  novelty,  it  will  be  in  the  mode  of  presenting  the 
facts,and  the  inferences  and  observations  following  that  presentation. 
In  his  speech  last  autumn  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  as  reported  in  the  New 
York  Times,  Senator  Douglas  said: 

"Our  fathers,  when  they  framed  the  government  under  which  we 
live,  understood  this  question  just  as  well,  and  even  better,  than  wc 
do  now." 

I  fully  indorse  this,  and  I  adopt  it  as  a  text  for  this  discourse.  I 
so  adopt  it  because  it  furnishes  a  precise  and  an  agreed  starting  point 
for  a  discussion  between  Republicans  and  that  wing  of  the  Democ- 
racy headed  by  Senator  Douglas.  It  simply  leaves  the  inquiry: 
What  was  the  understanding  those  fathers  had  of  the  question  men- 
tioned? 

What  is  the  frame  of  government  under  which  we  live?  The 
answer  mu.st  be,  "The  Conslilulion  of  the  United  Stales."  That 
Constitution  consists  of  the  original,  framed  in  1787,  and  under  wliii  h 


o 


1 8  ORAL  ENGLISH 


the  present  government  first  went  into  operation,  and  twelve  subse- 
quent framed  amendments,  the  first  ten  of  which  were  framed  in 
1789. 

Who  were  our  fathers  that  framed  the  Constitution?  I  suppose 
the  "thirty-nine"  who  signed  the  original  instrument  may  be  fairly 
called  our  fathers  who  framed  that  part  of  the  present  government. 
It  is  almost  exactly  true  to  say  they  framed  it,  and  it  is  altogether 
true  to  say  they  fairly  represented  the  opinion  and  sentiment  of  the 
whole  nation  at  that  time.  Their  names,  being  familiar  to  nearly 
all,  and  accessible  to  quite  all,  need  not  now  be  repeated. 

I  take  these  thirty-nine,"  for  the  present,  as  being  '  our  fathers 
who  framed  the  government  under  which  we  hve."  What  is  the 
question  which,  according  to  the  text,  those  fathers  understood  "just 
as  well,  and  even  better,  than  we  do  now"  ? 

It  is  this:  Does  the  proper  division  of  the  local  from  Federal 
authority,  or  anything  in  the  Constitution,  forbid  our  Federal  Govern- 
ment to  control  as  to  slavery  in  our  Federal  Territories? 

Upon  this.  Senator  Douglas  holds  the  affirmative,  and  RepubHcans 
the  negative.  This  affirmation  and  denial  form  an  issue;  and  this 
issue  —  this  question  —  is  precisely  what  the  text  declares  our  fathers 
understood  '  better  than  we."  Let  us  now  inquire  whether  the 
'  thirty-nine,"  or  any  of  them  ever  acted  upon  this  question;  and  if 
they  did,  how  they  acted  upon  it  —  how  they  expressed  that  better 
understanding. 


APPENDIX  V  (a) 

Specimen  Clash  and  Brief  on  "  Student  Government  " 

Resolved,  That  a  system  of  student  government  should  be  established 
in High  School. 

Dejinilioii: 

I.   The  affirmative  stands  for  a  system  of  student  government  which 
involves  the  following  principles: 

1.  Student  officers  shall  be  elected  either  directly  or  indirectly 

by  the  student  body. 

2.  All  action  shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  principal. 

(As  the  state  holds  cities  responsible  for  certain  duties,  so 
the  principal  may  hold  the  students  responsible  for  the 
conduct  of  the  school.  Outlook  So:  947;  Elementary  School 
Teacher,  8:  452.) 

3.  It  is  advisable  to  introduce  student  government  gradually. 

{Education  25:  86.) 

Clash  of  Opinion 


Affirmative 

Negative 

Points 

Proofs 

Points 

Proofs 

I.    Students   arc- 

I.    .Shown        in 

I.    Students 

I.    Did    not    no- 

Ilk cly   to   feci    u 

Uvfic  Park  High 

may     not     fake 

tice    when     elec- 

sense of  respon- 

School, Chicago. 

an  interest. 

tion  was  omitted. 

sibility    for    the 

(School    Review, 

(Nat.  EJii.Ass'n. 

pood      name     of 

6:37.) 

1908:  291.) 

the  school. 

2.    Wonderful 

2.    Night  School 

2.    Many      fail- 

2.   Schools     in 

change    for     the 

in    Philadelphia. 

ures  arc  report- 

South    Carolina 

better    has     oc- 

(El. Sch.  T.  8: 

ed. 

and     Indiana. 

curred  in  schools 

4S3-) 

(Education,      22: 

difiHuil  to  man- 

.S4I-) 

age. 

320 


ORAL  ENGLISH 

Clash  of  Opinion  {continued) 


Affirmative 

Negative 

Points 

Proofs 

Points 

Proofs 

3.    The    attitude 

3.    He  is  regard- 

3.   (a)  Bad  gov- 

toward the  teach- 

ed    as     an     in- 

ernment will  re- 

er is  changed. 

structor     rather 

sult  in  disrespect 

than  as  a  police- 

to teachers. 

man. 

{b)     A     good 
teacher     may 
arouse     respect 
under    the     old 
system. 

4.    Officers    take 

4.    Girl's      com- 

4.   Pupils  some- 

4. (a)  Experience 

duties  seriously. 

mittee     in     Los 

times  use    their 

in-  Illinois  Univ. 

Angeles       High 

offices  for  favor- 

{Nat. Edu.  Ass'n. 

School.  {Atlantic 

itism. 

1899:  542.) 

Monthly,       102: 

{b)  Teachers  say 

678.) 

only     68  %      are 
good         officers. 
{Nat.  Edu.  Ass'n. 
1908:  292.) 

5.      (a)    Instruc- 

5.  ((7)We  should 

5.    Students  are 

5.   Quotation 

tion   in    citizen- 

" learn  to  do  by 

too  immature  to 

from  Earl  Barnes. 

ship    should     be 

doing." 

solve  the   prob- 

{Nat. Edu.  Ass'n. 

practical  as  well 

lems  of  govern- 

1908: 293.) 

as  theoretical. 

ment       success- 
fully. 

{b)     Pupils  learn 

{b)  Student  gov- 

under    guidance 

ernment  may  be 

of  teachers  what 

regarded     as     a 

they    would     be 

laboratory. 

obliged   to  learn 

later   at   greater 

cost. 

APPENDIX  V  321 

No.  5  seems  to  be  the  strongest  on  the  affirmative  and  Nos.  2,  3, 
and  5  on  the  negative.  The  main  issue  is,  therefore,  "  Will  the  benefit 
of  practical  training  in  citizenship  outweigh  the  danger  of  failure  and 
resultant  poor  government?  " 

Specimen  Brief 

The  following  brief  was  prepared  by  students  in  connection  with  a 
classroom  debate.  A  much  more  extensive  brief  would  be  advisable 
if  the  debaters  were  preparing  for  an  interscholastic  contest. 

Resolved,  That  a  system  of  student  government  should  be  estab- 
lished in  our  high  school. 

Introduction. 

I.   Definition. 

A.  A  good  system  of  student  government  should  be  based  upon 

the  following  principles: 

1.  Student  officers  shall  be  elected  either  directly  or  in- 

directly by  the  students. 

2.  -Ml  action  shall  be  subject  to  approval  by  the  principal. 

(a)  As  the  state  holds  the  cities  responsible  for 
certain  duties,  so  the  principal  may  hold  the 
students  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the 
school. 

3.  Student  government  should  be  introduced  and  estab- 

Ushed  gradually. 
II.   History. 

.1.   The  system  has  been  tried  in  many  places,  as  Los  Angeles, 
Philadelphia,  St.  Louis. 
111.    Clash  of  Oi)ini()n. 

.1.    The  affirmative  claims  that   sluflcnt   government    gives  to 
pupils  a  practical  training  in  citizenship. 

B.  The  negative  holds  that  since  students  of  high-school  age  are 

too  immature  to  make  a  success  of  it,  bad  government  and 

con.sequenl  disrespect  for  law  will  follow. 
T\'.    Main  Issue:     Will  I  he  benefit  derived  from  actual  practice  in 
the  duties  of  citizenship  outweigh  the  danger  of  failure  and 
consequent  disrespect  for  law? 


322  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Argument  (Affirmative). 

I.   There  is  slight  danger  of  failure,  for 

A.  The  attitude  of  the  students  would  be  better,  for 

1.  Each  would  feel  that  he  was  responsible  for  the  good 

name  of  the  school,  for 

(o)   The  claim  that  students  will  decline  to  inform 

on  their  fellows  is  not  always  true.     {School 

Review,  6:  39.) 

2.  Observance  of  rules  would  be  a  result  of  reasoning 

rather   than  of  fear  and   submission.     {Elementary 
School  Teacher,  7:  452.) 

3.  The  teacher  would  be  regarded  as  an  instructor  rather 

than  as  a  policeman. 

B.  Punishment  is  more  effective  when  administered  by  one's 

equals. 

C.  In  schools  which  have  been  difficult  to  govern,  a  wonderful 

change  for  the  better  has  taken  place. 

1.  Gill's  School.     {Outlook,  80:  947.) 

2.  Night    School    in    Philadelphia     {Elementary    School 

Teacher,  7:453-) 
II.   Student  Government  makes  the  school  of  greater  benefit  to  the 
community,  for 

A .  Our  instruction  in  citizenship  at  present  is  merely  theoretical. 

B.  We  should  "  learn  to  do  by  doing,"  for 

I.   The  rule  of  a  monarchy  will  not  prepare  students  for 
a  democracy.     {Education,  25:  87.) 

C.  Student  government  may  be  regarded  as  laboratory  practice, 

for 

1.  Pupils  would  learn  by  experience  under  the  guidance 

of  teachers  what  they  would  be  obhged  to  learn  later 
at  greater  cost,  for 

(a)   They  might  learn  that  civic  apathy  results  in 
bad  government.     {Elementary  School  Teacher, 

7:  552-) 

2.  Officers  would  gain  a  knowledge  of  human  nature  and 

an  experience  in  leadership  which  would  prove  to 
be  very  valuable.     {Atlantic  Monthly,  io5:  678.) 


APPENDIX  V  323 

Argument  (Negative). 
I.   There  is  great  danger  of  failure,  for 

A.  The  students  may  not  feel  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  the 

government. 

1.  In  one  case  they  failed  to  notice  that  an  election  had 

been  omitted.     (Nat.  Ediica.  Ass'n.  1908:  291.) 

2.  They  may  hold  it  dishonorable  to  report  a  fellow  student. 

(a)   This  was  true  at  Williams  College  {Education, 
22:  542.) 

3.  They  may  elect  mischievous  students  in  the  hope  of 

lax  disciphne.     {Atlantic  Monthly,  102:676.) 

B.  Officers  may  fail  to  take  the  right  attitude,  for 

1.  They  may  consider  it  too  much  trouble  to  hold  office. 

{Nat.  Educa.  Ass'n.  1908:  292.) 

2.  They  may  use  their  offices 

(a)    For  the  benefit  of  their  friends.     {Nat.  Educa. 

Ass'n.  1889:  542.) 
{b)    To  take  revenge  on  their  enemies.     (Cronson's 

Pupil  Sclj -Government,  p.  66.) 
(c)    As  a  cloak  for  their  own  misbehavior. 

(i)    Instance  of  hazing.     {Education,  2g:  ^;^6.) 

C.  Many  failures  have  been  reported. 

1.  Illinois  University  {Nat.  Educa.  Ass'n.  1S89:  542). 

2.  Philadelphia  {Nat.  Educa.  Ass'n.  1908:  291). 

3.  In  .South  Carolina  and  Indiana.     {Education,  22:  541.) 
II.   There  is  a  better  way  to  prepare  students  for  citizenship,  for 

A.   High-school  students  are  not  old  enough  to  solve  the  problem 
of  governing  others,  for 

1.  Many  situations  are  too  difficult  even  for  teachers  to 

handle  wisely. 

2.  Teachers  report  that  only  68%  of  officers  can  be  called 

"good  officers."     {Nat.  Educa.  Ass'n.  1908:  292.) 

3.  Quotation  from  Karl  Barnes  {Nat.  Educa.  Ass'n.  1908: 

293-) 
/'.    Had  government  will  cause  disrespect  for  law  and  so  produce 

bad  citizens. 
C.    A  goofl  teacher  can  usually  secure  ihc  right  alliludc  on  the 
part  of  students  under  the  [irescnt  system. 


APPENDIX  V  (b) 

Brief  Arranged  for  Two  or  Three  Speakers 

The  following  brief  shows  how  material  may  be  partitioned  for 
either  two  or  three  speakers. 

Resolved,  That  three-fourths  of  a  jury  should  be  competent  to 
render  a  verdict  in  all  criminal  cases. 


Introduction. 

I.  Definition. 

A.  "Three-fourths  of  a  jury"  means  nine  of  the  twelve  men 

constituting  a  full  panel  of  jurors. 

B.  "All  criminal  cases"  includes  those  in  which  death  is  the 

penalty. 

II.  History. 

A.   The  "three-fourths  jury"  has  been  used  successfully  in  civil 
cases,  and  in  some  states  for  minor  criminal  offenses. 

III.  Main  Issue:     Does  the  danger  to  society  through  bribery,  dis- 

agreements, and  disrespect  for  the  law  outweigh  the  danger 
of  a  mistaken  three-fourths  decision  in  the  case  of  an 
innocent  accused  person? 


(Arranged  for  two  speakers.) 

I.   The  unit  rule   causes  disre- 
spect for  the  law,  for 

A.  It  leads  to  disagreements. 

B.  It  causes  delay  in  impanel- 

ing jurors. 
II.   The  three-fourths  verdict  is 
a  reasonable  safeguard. 
A.   It  is  unreasonable  to  ex- 
pect 1 2  men  to  agree  any 
more  than  72  men. 


(Arranged  for  three  speakers.) 

I.   The  unit  rule  is  unreasonable. 

A.  When  there  is  conflicting 

evidence  it  is  unreason- 
able to  expect  1 2  men  to 
agree  any  more  than  72 
men. 

B.  It  gives   to  an  obstinate, 

bribed,  or  prejudiced 
juror  the  power  to  de- 
feat justice.    • 


APPENDIX  V 


325 


B.  Numerous      other      safe- 

guards have  been  es- 
tablished since  the  unit 
rule  originated,  such  as 
habeas  corpus,  appeal, 
etc. 

C.  We  should  think  of  the  in- 

nocent victims  of  the 
criminal  as  weU  as  the 
innocent  accused. 


C.  The  verdict  of  9  out  of  12 
is  a  reasonable  protec- 
tion to  both. 
II.  The  unit  rule,  through  delay 
and  defeat  of  justice, 
causes  disrespect  for  the 
law. 

A.  Disagreements     are      fre- 

quent. 

B.  It  causes  delay  in  impanel- 

ing jurors. 

C.  It  leads  to  compromises. 
III.   The  unit  rule  is  unnecessary, 

for 

A.  Numerous      other      safe- 

guards have  been  es- 
tablished since  the  unit 
rule  was  originated. 

B.  Under   the   present   social 

conditions,  there  is  more 
danger  of  injustice  to  the 
innocent  victims  than  to 
the  innocent  accused. 

C.  We  should  think  of  the  in- 

nocent victims  of  the 
criminal  as  well  as  of  the 
innocent  accused. 


APPENDIX  VI 

List  of  Debatable  Questions  with  General  References  ^ 

I.    Government  Activity  versus  Private  Enterprise. 

1.  Cities  should  own  and  operate  their  street  railways. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Ringwalt,  184. 

Carpenter,  8.  Shurter  and  Taylor,  106,  67. 

Robbins,  134.  Brookings,  132. 

Craig,  337. 

2.  The  public  telephone  and  telegraph  lines  should  be  acquired 

by  the  Federal  Government. 

Brookings,  126  Shurter,  76  and  79. 

Craig,  185.  Debater's  Handbook. 

Ringwalt,  174. 

3.  The  United  States  should  own  and  operate  the  railroads. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Intercollegiate     Debates,     IV, 

Brookings,  123.  255. 

Shurter,  73.  Robbins,  88. 

Craig,  106.  Ringwalt,  163. 

4.  The  United  States  should  establish  a  system  of  compulsory 

insurance.     (This  question  may  be  narrowed  so  as  to  apply 
to  accident,  unemployment,  or  old  age.) 
Intercollegiate  Debates,  IV,  303  (Accident);  377  (Old  Age). 
Debater's  Handbook  (Deals  with  all  forms). 
Shurter,  173  (Accident);  102  (Municipal  Aid  to  Unemployed); 

200  (Old   Age   Pensions);    88   (Housing  of  Poor);    203  (Old 

Age    Insurance);     28     (Employment     System    of    General 

Booth,. 
Brookings,  160  (Employment  System  of  General  Booth);   168 

(Municipal   Aid   for   Unemployed). 

1  See  Bibliography  for  complete  titles  of  books.  Each  general 
reference  contains  special  references  on  the  subject.  Almost  all  of  these 
questions  are  treated  also  in  Bliss's  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform. 


APPENDIX   VI  327 

5.  Socialism  is  the  best  solution  of  our  labor  problems. 

Shurter,  170  and  176.  Brookinj^s,  129. 

6.  The  United  States  ought  to  own  and  control  the  coal  mines 

of  the  country. 
Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  435. 

7.  The  Federal  Government  should  construct  all  irrigation  works. 

Shurter,  69.  Brookings,  144. 

8.  In  American  municipalities  of  25,000  or  over,  a  tax  on  the 

rental  value  of  land  exclusive  of  improvements  should  be 
substituted  for  the  general  property  tax. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  II,  127.   Debater's  Handbook  (Single  Tax). 
Shurter,  117.  Craig,  250. 

Ringwalt,  202.  Brookings,  120. 

n.   Democratic  versus  Representative  Government. 

1.  The  initiative  and  referendum  should  be  adopted  in  aU  states. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Intercollegiate  Debates,  II,  283. 

Thomas,  166.  Carpenter,  91. 

Robbins,  121.  Ringwalt,  50. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  67.  Shurter,  242. 

2.  The  direct  primary'  should  be  used  in  nominating  all  candi- 

dates for  elective  offices  in  the  state. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  III,  43.      Carpenter,  87. 
Shurter,  158  and  161.  Robbins,  158. 

Debater's  Handbook. 

3.  Judges  should  be  subject  to  recall. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Shurter,  246. 

Carpenter,  143. 

4.  Judicial  decisions  should  be  subject  to  recall  by  the  people. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Intercollegiate  Debates,  IV,  61. 

III.   Labor  versus  Capital. 

I.   The  movement  of  organized  labor  for  llu-  closed  shop  should 
receive  the  support  of  |)ublic  ojjinion. 
Debater's   Handbook.  I nlrrcollrgiatr  Drbatrs.  I,  2^11. 

Thomas,  194.  Intircollrgiatr     Debates,     III, 

Shurter,  211.  185. 


328  ORAL  ENGLISH 

2.  Trade  Unions,  as  they  now  exist,  are,  on  the  whole,  beneficial 

to  society  in  the  United  States. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Carpenter,  ii8. 

Shurter,  i.  Brookings,  151. 

Inlcrcollegiate  Debates,  I,  201. 

3.  Capital  and  Labor  should  be  compelled  to  settle  their  disputes 

in  legally  established  courts  of  arbitration. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Carpenter,  131  and  139. 

Ringwalt,  210.  Shurter,  142. 

Brookings,  162  and  197. 

4.  The  issuing  of  injunctions  by  federal    courts   in   labor   dis- 

putes should  be  forbidden  by  Congress. 

Ringwalt,  219.  Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  129. 

Shurter,  85.  Thomas,  188. 

5.  It  would  be  advisable   to  apply  minimum  wage   legislation 

in  the  field  of  the  sweated  industries  of  the  United  States, 
constitutionality  waived. 
Intercollegiate  Debates,  III,  83.      Shurter,  182. 

6.  The  State  of  X  has  a  better  child  labor  law  than  the  State  of  Y. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Shurter,  150. 

7.  Foreign  immigration  to  the  United  States  should  be  restricted 

by  the  imposition  of  an  educational  test. 
Thomas,  196  and  198.  Craig,  206. 

Ringwalt,  31.  Robbins,  100. 

Brookings,  68.  Shurter,  16,  90,  220. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  165. 

8.  Our  present  policy  of  excluding  the  Chinese  from  this  country 

is  unjustifiable. 

Shurter,  9.  Thomas,  176. 

Ringwalt,  42.  Brookings,  73. 

Robbins,  204. 

IV.   Centralization  versus  the  Division  of  Power. 

I.  The  parliamentary  form  of  government  is  better  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  a  progressive  and  democratic  nation  than  the 
presidential  form. 


APPENDIX   VI  329 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  367.  Brookings,  37  and  40. 

Intercollegiate     Debates,     III,  Thomas,  164. 

241.  Shurler,  144. 
Intercollegiate  Debates,  IV,  i. 

2.  Judges  of  superior  courts  and  judges  of  the  courts  of  appellate 

jurisdiction  of  the  states  should  gain  office  by  appointment 
of  the  state  executive. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  345. 

3.  The  short  ballot  should  be  adopted  in  state,  county,  and  mu- 

nicipal elections. 
Intercollegiate  Debates,  II,  ^iq.      Shurtcr,  132. 

4.  A  commission  form  of  government  should  be  adopted  by  our 

states. 

The  Unicameral  Legislature.         University  of  Oklahoma  and 

the  University  of  Kansas. 

5.  Our  cities  should  adopt  the  commission  plan  of  municipal 

government. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Shurtcr,  58  and  258. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  461.       Robbins,  57. 
Intercollegiate  Debates,  II,  363. 

6.  The  executive  appointments  of  a  city  mayor  should  be  in- 

dependent of  council  confirmation. 
S'lurter,  104.  Brookings,  49 

V.   Federal  versus  State  Authority. 

1.  The  power  of  the  Federal  Government  should  be  paramount 

to  that  of  the  states  in  the  conservation  of  natural  resources, 
limited  to  forests,  water-power,  and  minerals. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Shurtcr,  83. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  II,  235.      Rol)bins,  65. 

2.  A   national    prohibition   law   should   be  enacted  —  constitu- 

tionality granted. 

Thomas,  184.  Brookings,  172  and  176. 

Robbins,  177.  Shurtcr,  24  and  2O. 

Craig,  94. 

Note.  —  The  state  issue  is  proliijjition  versus  regulation. 


330  ORAL  ENGLISH 

3.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  should  be  amended  to 

provide  for  woman  suffrage. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Robbins,  196. 

Shurter,  38.  Craig,  127. 

Ringwalt,  8.  Brookings,  8. 

Note.  — Woman  suffrage  as  a  national  versus  a  state  issue  is 
new  and  therefore  is  not  treated  in  the  general  references. 

4.  A  progressive  inheritance  ta.x  should  be  levied  by  the  Federal 

Government. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  141.       Bliss,  621. 
Shurter,  227. 

5.  The  Fifteenth  Amendment  should  be  repealed. 

Thomas,  168.  Ringwalt,  17. 

Robbins,  168.  Shurter,  109. 

Carpenter,  65.  Brookings,  3  and  6. 

6.  The  Federal  Government  should  have  control  over  national 

elections. 

Shurter,  81.  Brookings,  i. 

7.  There  should  be  Federal  control  of  quarantine. 

Shurter,  71.  Brookings,  146. 

VI.   Protection  -versus  Free  Trade. 

1.  Our  policy  should  be  shaped  toward  a  gradual  abandonment 

of  the  protective  tariff. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Ringwalt,  95. 

Thomas,  172.  Brookings,  96,  99,  no,  115. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  in.  Craig,  160. 

Intercollegiate     Debates,     II,  Carpenter,  23,  28,  2>2>y  i7- 

149,  185.  Shurter,  124,  127,  129,  185. 

2.  The  United  States  should  adopt  the  policy  of  entering  into 

reciprocal  trade  treaties  with  foreign  nations. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Thomas,  178. 

Shurter,  164  and  214.  Brookings,  102. 

Ringwalt,  105  and  113. 

3.  -The  Federal  Government  should  grant  financial  aid  to  ships 


APPENDIX  VI  331 

engaged  in  our  foreign  trade  and  owned  by  citizens  of  the 
United  States. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  405.  Carpenter,  14. 

Shurter,  194.  Thomas,  178. 

Ringwalt,  121.  Brookings,  107. 
Robbins,  189. 

4.  Foreign  built  ships  should  be  admitted  to  American  registry, 

free  of  duty. 

Shurter,  191.  Brookings,  104. 

5.  Corporations   engaging   in   interstate   commerce   should   be 

required  to  take  out  a  Federal  charter. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  39.  Shurter,  92,    140,   239. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  147.  Ringwalt,  131. 

Intercollegiate     Debates,     IV,  Carpenter,  i. 

149  and  189.  Craig,  327. 

Brookings,  134.  Thomas,  182. 

\'II.   The  United  States  as  a  World  Power. 

1.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  should  be  abandoned  by  the  United 

States. 

Shurter,  55.  Thomas,  192  and  198. 

Ringwalt,  84.  Debater's  Handbook. 

Carpenter,  59.  Intercollegiate  Debates  I,  223. 

2.  The  United  States  should  increase  its  navj'. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  293. 

Thomas,  176.  Shurter,  18. 

Brookings,  78. 

3.  The  United  States  should  grant  the-  I'liilippinc  islands  inde- 

pendence jjefore  the  passing  of  another  generation. 

Robbins,  146.  Shurter,  52. 

Carpenter,  42  and  55.  Ringwalt,  75. 

VTII.    Community  versus  Individual  Welfare. 
I.    ('ai)ital  punishment  should  be  abolished. 

Debater's  Handbook.  Shurter,  32. 

Thomas,  184.  Brookings,  57. 

Robbins,  44. 


332  ORAL  ENGLISH 

2.  In  all  jury  trials,  the  concurrence  of  nine,  or  three-fourths 
of  the  total  number  of  jurors,  should  be  suiificient  for  the 
rendering  of  a  decision. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  III,  313.    Brookings,  55. 
Shurter,  30. 

# 
IX.   Miscellaneous  Issues. 

1.  The  pension  policy  of  the  United  States  should  be  condemned. 

Shurter,  100.  Brookings,  75. 

2.  All   states  should   require   an   educational   qualification  for 

suffrage. 

Intercollegiate  Debates,  I,  243.       Ringwalt,  25. 
Shurter,  114. 

3.  A  reasonable  property  qualification  should  be  made  the  basis 

of  municipal  suffrage. 

Shurter,  112.  Brookings,  11. 

Thomas,  204. 

4.  The  naturalization  laws  of  the  United  States  should  be  made 

more  stringent. 

Shurter,  14.  Thomas,  188. 

Ringwalt,  i. 


APPENDIX  VII 

List  of  Subjects  for  Persuasive  Speeches 
School  Life 

1.  Discuss  "Our  Eleven"  (or  "Our  Nine,"  "Our  Basket-ball  Team," 

"Our  Tennis  Champions,"  "Our  Debaters,"  "Our  Track 
Men")  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  a  large  attendance  at  the 
next  meet. 

2.  Seek  the  support  of  the  students  for  your  school  paper. 

3.  Urge  the  students  to  try  out  for  some  school  activity,  such  as 

an  athletic  team,  debate  squad,  or  musical  organization. 

4.  Present  to  the  Board  of  Education  your  school's  need  for  a  better 

athletic  field  (or  gymnasium). 

5.  Present  to  the  voters  of  your  district  or  city  the  need  of  a  bond 

issue  for  a  new  school  building. 

6.  Ask  the  members  of  the  stu<lenl  body  to  buy  Red  Cross  stamps. 

7.  Make  a  nominating  speech  in  which  you  try  to  persuade   the 

students  to  vote  for  your  candidate  for  student  body  presi- 
dent (or  other  ofiicer). 

8.  Urge  your  fellow  students  to  write  schcKjl  songs  and  yells. 
g.    Advertise  the  Senior  play. 

10.  Persuade  your  fellow  students  to  contribute  articles  to  a  fair  to 

raise  money  for  a  scholarship  fund. 

11.  Try  to  induce  the  student  body  of  some  neighboring  high  school 

to  join  your  <lebating  league  (or  athletic  association). 

12.  As  an  alumnus,  ajjpeal  to  the  alumni  association  lo  place  in  the 

school  some  memorial  of  a  favorite  instructor  who  has  died. 

13.  Urge  the  members  of  some  adult  organization  to  atiiinl  ;i  |)iil)lic 

speaking  contest  in  your  school. 

14.  Present   before  the  student   body  the  advantages  lo  be  derived 

from  the  study  of  sonir  high-school  subject. 


334  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Outside  of  School 

1.  Solicit  from  a  lady  a  subscription  to  a  magazine. 

2.  Persuade  a  lady  traveler  that  your  town  or  vicinity  is  a  good  place 

in  which  to  build  a  home. 

3.  Persuade  a  stranger  that  your  home  town  is  a  good  place  in 

which  to  establish  a  business. 

4.  Talk  to  the  Young  People's  Society  of  your  church  on  "Our 

Duty  in  Regard  to  the  Building  Fund." 

5.  SoKcit  funds  for  sufferers  in  flood,  fire,  or  war. 

6.  Solicit  subscriptions  before  a  merchants'  organization  for  some 

city  improvement  (park,  lake,  etc.). 

7.  Present  to  a  teacher  or  a  school  board  the  merits  of  some  text- 

book. 

8.  Present  before  a  woman's  club  the  merits  of  some  article  of 

domestic  use. 

9.  Try  to  sell  a  lot  to  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  committee. 

10.  Present  before  a  grange  the  merits  of  an  improved  farming  imple- 

ment. 

11.  Try  to  secure  an  endowment  for  a  small  college. 

12.  As  a  member  of  a  woman's  club,  urge  the  society  to  work  for 

the  more  careful  supervision  of  moving  picture  performances. 

13.  As  a  member  of  a  woman's  club,  urge  early  Christmas  shop- 

ping. 

14.  As  a  citizen,  make  an  appeal  for  the  preservation  of  a  historic 

landmark. 

15.  As  the  chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign  missions,  appeal  to 

the  members  of  your  church  to  increase  their  subscriptions. 

16.  Try  to  persuade  a  group  of  people  to  form    an   organization 

(farmers'  union,  labor  union.  Mothers'  Club,  Boy  Scouts, 
Girls'  ]\Iissionary  Society,  Merchants'  Association). 

17.  Try  to  persuade  women  teachers  to  combine  to  secure  salaries 

equal  to  those  of  men. 

18.  Urge  a  body  of  citizens  to  vote  for  (or  against)  some  measure 

which  is  before  the  public  (prohibition,  abolition  of  capital 
punishment,  etc.). 

19.  Try  to  persuade  an  audience  of  workingmen  that  a  strike  is 

unprofitable. 


APPENDIX  VIII 

List  of  Eulogies  for  Study 

Reed's  Modern  Eloquence. 

Anoerson,  M.  B.,  Genius  and  Achievement  of  Morse,  7:  40. 

Austin,  Alfred,  Chaucer,  7:  45. 

Birrell,  A.,  Dr.  Johnson's  Personality,  7:  87. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  C.  S.,  John  C.  Breckenridge,  7:  113. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  Character  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  7:  137. 

Bryant,  William  Cullcn,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  7:  155. 

Choate,  Rufus,  On  the  Death  of  Webster,  7:  216. 

Clark,  Champ,  Aaron  Burr,  7:  230. 

Curtis,  George  William,  James  Russell  Lowell,  7:  255. 

Dolliver,  J.  P.,  Robert  Emmet,  7:  363. 

Everett,  Edward,  Adams  and  Jefferson,  8:  439. 

Farrar,  F.  W.,  General  Grant,  8:  464. 

Fiske,  John,  Columbus,  the  Navigator,  8:  490. 

Graves,  J.  T.,  Henry  W.  Grady,  8:  590. 

Hugo,  Victor,  Voltaire,  8:  710. 

Ingalls,  J.  J.,  Eulogy  on  Benjamin  Hill,  8:  721. 

Lamar.  L.  Q.  C,  Charles  Sumner,  8:  767. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  Washington  Irving,  8:  786. 

McKinley,  William,  Characteristics  of  Washington,  9:  845. 

McKinlcy,  William,  American  Patriotism,  9;  847. 

Morris,  Gouvcrneur,  Alexander  Hamilton,  9:  887. 

OIncy,  Richard,  John  Marshall,  9:  932. 

Prentiss,  Sargent,  Lafayette,  9:  97i- 

Roscbery,  Lord,  Robert  Burns,  9:  1007. 

Stedman,  E.  C,  Work  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  9:  1098. 

Stubbs,  Charles  William,  Shakespeare  as  a  Prophet,  9:  1 104. 

Warner,  C.  D.,  George  William  Curtis,  Litterateur,  9:  11 30. 

Watterson,  Henry,  Francis  Scott  Key,  9:  1143. 


336  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Depew's  Library  of  Oratory. 

Bellows,  H.  W.,  At  the  Funeral  of  William  Cullen  Bryant,  8:  454. 

Blaine,  James  G.,  Oration  on  Garfield,  11:  282. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  Abraham  Lincoln,  13:  38. 

Chapin,  Edwin  Hubbell,  Eulogy  on  Horace  Greeley,  8:  475. 

Choate,  Joseph  Hodges,  Ritfus  Choatc,  12:  56. 

Choate,  Rufus,  Eulogy  on  Daniel  Webster,  6:  294. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  Eulogy  on  William  McKinley,  13:  155. 

Curtis,  George  William,  Eulogy  on  Wendell  Phillips,  10:  346. 

Dallas,  George  Mifflin,  Eulogy  on  Andrew  Jackson,  6:  25. 

Depew,  Chauncey  Mitchell,  Celebration  of  General  Grant's  Birth- 
day, 12:  324. 

Farrar,  Frederick  William,  Eulogy  on  General  Grant,  12:  12. 

Gorgias,  The  Encomium  on  Helen,  i:  12. 

Guizot,  Frangois  Pierre  Guillaume,  At  the  Unveiling  of  the  Statue 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  5 :  404. 

Hay,  John,  Tribute  to  the  late  William  McKinley,  13:  223. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Oration  upon  Grant,  10:  302. 

Hoar,  George  Frisbie,  Eulogy  on  William  McKifiley,  1 1 :  49. 

Holland,  Josiah  Gilbert,  Eulogy  on  Lincoln,  9:439. 

Hugo,  Victor,  On  the  Centennial  of  Voltaire's  Death,  7:1. 

Hugo,  Victor,  On  Honore  de  Balzac,  7:  5. 

Ingersoll,  Robert  Green,  Oration  at  his  Brother's  Grave,  12:  188. 

Lacordaire,  Jean  Baptiste  Henri,  Panegyric  on  Daniel  O'Connell, 
6:478. 

Lamar,  Lucius  Quintus  Cincinnatus,  Eulogy  on  Charles  Sumner, 
10:  441. 

Lee,  Henry,  Eulogy  on  Washington,  3:  474. 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  On  Daniel  Webster,  14:  179. 

Long,  John  Davis,  Eulogy  on  Wendell  Phillips,  13:  247. 

Otis,  Harrison  Gray,  Eulogy  on  Alexander  Hamilton,  4:  189. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  Eulogy  on  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  8:  228. 

Potter,  Henry  Codman,  Eulogy  on  Phillips  Brooks,  13:  i. 

Winthrop,  Robert  Charles,  Eulogy  on  Edward  Everett,  8:41. 

Brewer's  The  World's  Best  Orations. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  Lafayette,  i :  79. 
Blaine,  James  G.,  Oration  on  Garfield,  2:  481. 


APPENDIX  VIII  337 

Brooks,  Phillips,  Lincoln  as  a  Typical  American,  2:  644. 
Bryant,  William  Cullen,  The  Greatness  of  Burns,  2:  702. 
Choate,  Joseph  Hodges,  Farragut,  3:  1109. 
Crittenden,  John  Jordan,  Henry  Clay  and  the  Niiuleenth  Century 

Spirit,  4:  1472. 
Curtis,  George  ^^'illiam,    Wendell    Phillips    as    a    History-maker, 

4: 1571- 
Daniel,  John  W.,  Dedication  of  Washington  Monument,  4:  1608. 
Farrar,  Frederick  William,  On  General  Grant,  6:  2128. 
Hugo,  \'ictor,  Oration  on  Honore  de  Balzac,  7:  2545. 
Hugo,  Victor,  On  the  Centennial  of  Voltaire's  Death,  7:  2550. 
Ingalls,  John  T.,  The  Undiscovered  Country,  7:  2574. 
Ingersoll,  Robert  Green,  Oration  at  His  Brother's  Grave,  7:  2580. 
Laurier,  Sir  Wilfred,  The  Character  and  Work  of  Gladstone,  7:  2732. 
Lee,  Henrj%  Funeral  Oration  for  Washington,  7:  2744. 
McKinlcy,  William,  Dedication  of  Grant  Monument,  8:  2905. 
Morris,  Gouverneur,  Oration  at  the  Funeral  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 

8:3075- 
Otis,  Harrison  Gray,  Hamilton's  Influence  on  American  Lnstitu- 

tions,  8:3111. 
Palmerston,  Henry,  On  the  Death  of  Cobden,  8:  3131. 
Potter,   Henry   Codman,   Washington  and  American  Aristocracy, 

8:3225. 
Webster,  Daniel,  Adams  and  Jejferson,  10:  3848. 
Wirt,  William,  Death  of  Jeferson  and  Adams,  10:  3905. 


APPENDIX  IX 


List  of  Birthdays 


January 

Edmund  Burke 12 

Benjamin  Franklin 17 

Daniel  Webster 18 

Lord  Byron 22 

Robert  Burns 25 

James  G.  Blaine 31 

February 

Horace  Greeley 3 

Charles  Dickens 7 

John  Ruskin 8 

Thomas  Edison 11 

Abraham  Lincoln 12 

George  Washington 22 

James  RusseU  Lowell 22 

George  W.  Curtis 24 

Henry  W.  Longfellow 26 

Victor  Hugo 26 

March 

William  Dean  Howells i 

David  Livingstone 19 

April 

Washington  Irvang 3 

John  Burroughs 3 

William  Wordsworth 7 

Henry  Clay 12 

Charles  H.  Parkhurst 17 


John  Muir 21 

Friedrich  Frobel 21 

William  Shakespeare 23 

Edwin  Markham 23 

Ulysses  S.  Grant 27 

May 

John  James  Audubon 4 

Robert  Browning 7 

William  H.  Seward 16 

Henry  Grady 17 

William  Lloyd  Garrison 24 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 25 

Louis  Agassiz 28 

Patrick  Henry 29 

Jimc 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe 14 

Henry  Ward  Beecher 24 

July 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne 5 

Henry  D.  Thoreau 12 

William  M.  Thackeray 19 

A  ugust 

Percy  Bysshe  Shelley 4 

Alfred  Tennyson 5 

Sir  Walter  Scott 15 

Bret  Harte 25 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 29 


APPENDIX   IX 


339 


September 

Eugene  Field 2 

John  iMarshall 24 

Irving  Bacheller 26 

October 

Thomas  B.  jMacaulay 25 

John  Keats 29 

November 

Andrew  D.  White 2 

WilHam  Cullcn  Br>'ant 3 

Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich 11 


Robert  Louis  Stevenson 13 

\\'endell  Phillips 29 

Mark  Twain 30 

December 

Thomas  Carlyle 4 

John  Greenlcaf  Whittier 7 

John  Millon 9 

Phillips  Brooks 13 

Matthew  Arnold 24 

William  E.  Gladstone 29 

Rudyard  Kipling 30 


APPENDIX  X 

List  of  Addresses  Commemorative  of  Historical  Events 

Reed's  Modern  Eloquence. 

Field,  C.  W.,  Story  of  the  Atlantic  Cable,  8:  473. 
Higginson,  T.  W.,  Battle  of  the  Cowpens,  8:  618. 
Higginson,  T.  W.,  Decoration  Day,  8:  621. 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  Memorial  Day,  8:  691. 

Depew's  Library  of  Oratory. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  Oration  at  Plymouth,  4:  273. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  At  the  Raising  of  the  Old  Flag  at  Fort  Sumter, 

8:395- 
Curtis,  George  William,  Oratio)i  at  Concord,  10:  2,2>2>- 
Depew,  Chauncey  M.,  At  the  Columbian  E.xposition,  12:  332. 
Depew,  Chauncey  M.,  Oration  at  the  Unveiling  of  the  Bartholdi 

Statue,  12:  307. 
Ewarts,  William  I\I.,  What  the  Age  Owes  to  America,  9:  238. 
Everett,  Edward,  Patriotic  Oration,  6:  92. 
Fenelon,  Archbishop,  Festival  of  the  Epiphany,  2:  113. 
Fiske,  John,  Oration  on  Columbus,  13:  441. 
Higginson,  T.  W.,  Decoration  Day  Address,  10:  298. 
Lowell,  James  Russell,   Oration  at  the  2joth  Anniversary  of  the 

Founding  of  Harvard  College,  9:  354. 
Prentiss,  Sargent,  The  New  England  Address,  7:349. 
Webster,  Daniel,  Bunker  Hill  Monument  Oration,  5:  268. 
Webster,  Daniel,  At  Plymouth  in  1820,  5:  293. 

Brewer's  The  World's  Best  Orations. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  Jr.,  Battle  of  Gettysburg,  i:  31. 
Adams,  John  Quincj^  Oration  at  Plymouth,  i:  64. 
Adams,  John  Quincy,  The  Jubilee  of  the  Constitution,  i :  85. 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  Raising  the  Flag  over  Fort  Sumter,  i :  346. 
Boudinot,  Elias,  The  Mission  of  America,  2:  580. 


APPENDIX  X  341 

BrowTi,  Henry  Armitt,  One  Century's  Achievement,  2:  683. 
Brown,  Henr>-  Armitt,  Dangers  of  the  Present,  2:  685. 
Carson,  Hampton  L.,  American  Liberty,  2:  985. 
Depew,  Chauncey  M.,  Columbian  Oration,  5:  1769. 
Hale,  Edward  Everett,  Boston's  Place  in  History,  6:  2355. 
Hecker,  F.  K.  F.,  Liberty  in  the  New  Atlantis,  7:  2457. 
IMcKinley,  William,  American  Patriotism,  8:  2899. 
Prentiss,  Sargent,  On  New  England  Day,  8:  3233. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  Junior,  .1/  the  Second  Centennial  of  Boston,  9:  3272. 
Webster,  Daniel,  Laying  the  Cornerstone  of  Bunker  Hill  Monu- 
ment, 10:  3828. 
Webster,  Daniel,  At  Plymouth  in  1820,  10:  3846. 


APPENDIX  XI 

Oration  Subjects  ^ 

1 .  Educational  Waste.  —  The  student  should  be  led  early  in  life 

to  discover  that  for  which  he  is  fitted. 

2.  Shackles  of  the  Dead.  —  We  are  retarded  by  certain  traditions. 

3.  Our  Debt  to  Agitators.  —  We  owe  progress  in  civilization  to  the 

courage  of  the  few. 

4.  Immigration  and  Democracy.  —  American  ideals  are  endangered; 

or  America  is  the  land  of  opportunity. 

5.  Invisible    Government.  —  The   boss,    as   an   outgrowth   of   our 

check  and  balance  system,  can  be  dethroned  only  by  the 
centralization  of  power. 

6.  The  Waste  of  War.  —  Whom  the  gods  wish  to  destroy,  they 

first  make  mad. 

7.  Education,  the  Foundation  of  Democracy.  —  The  greater  the 

power  in  the  hands  of  the  people  the  more  necessary  be- 
comes the  discussion  of  pubHc  questions. 

8.  Marshall  and  the  Federal  Constitution.  — ■  His  great  service  was 

to  adjust  the  delicate  balance  between  national  and  state 
rights. 

9.  Another  "Irrepressible  Conflict":   Labor  and  Capital.  —  So  long 

as  there  is  a  privileged  class,  the  question  will  not  be  settled. 

10.  Christian  Unity.  —  The  principle  of  modern  business  coopera- 

tion should  be  applied  in  the  field  of  religion. 

11.  The  Civic  Service  of  Great  Poets.  —  By  expressing  the  best 

sentiments   of    the   people,    they   have    strengthened   and 
moved  them  to  action. 

12.  The  New  Penology.  —  The  aim  is  to  reform  the  criminal  while 

protecting  society. 

^  Other  subjects  will  be  found  in  J.  Berg  Esenwein's  How  to  Attract 
and  Hold  an  Audience  and  in  Shurter's  The  Rhetoric  oj  Oratory. 


APPENDIX  XI  343 

13.  The  Spoken  Word.  —  The  pen  is  not  mightier  than  the  tongue. 

14.  The  ]\Ian  of  the  Hour.  —  The  man  who  is  fitted  to  lead  at  a  time 

of  crisis  is  the  one  who  has  the  spirit  of  service. 

15.  The  Conqueror.  —  The  hero  of  to-day  is  he  who  conquers  igno- 

rance. 

16.  The  Quest  for  the  Unknown.  —  It  has  inspired  explorers,  scien- 

tists, and  inventors. 

17.  A  Conspiracy  against  the  People.  —  The  liquor  interests  and 

other  privileged  classes  combine  to  rob  the  people. 

18.  "Fear  Ye  Not."  —  Fear,  which  has  limited  man  throughout 

the  ages,  can  be  overcome  by  the  consciousness  that  we  do 
God's  will. 

19.  Booker  Washington,  the  Father  of  His  People.  —  He  solved  the 

race  problem  by  teaching  his  people  the  dignity  of  service. 

20.  Sell  All  that  Thou  Hast.  —  Every  great  gain  demands  a  loss. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  1 

I.   General  References 

Bautain,  M.,   The  Art  of  Extempore  Speaking.     Charles  Scribners' 
Sons,  New  York,  18^7. 

One  of  the  earUest  books  to  lay  stress  upon  the  value  of  an  out- 
line and  freedom  from  manuscript. 

Bolenius,  Emma  Miller,  The  Teaching  of  Oral  English.     Lippincott, 

Philadelphia,  19 14. 
Buckley,  James  M.,  Extemporaneous  Oratory.     Eaton  &  Mains,  New 

York,  1898. 

Covers  the  whole  field  in  an  interesting  way. 

Esenwein,  J.  Berg,  How  to  Attract  and  Hold  an  Audience.     Hinds, 
Noble  &  Eldredge,  New  York,  1902. 

Contains  list  of  oration  subjects  with  suggestions  for  treatment. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Hints  on  Writing  and  Speech-making. 
Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  1887. 

An  extremely  bright  and  entertaining  little  book. 

Holyoake,  Geo.  J.,  Public  Speaking  and  Debate.     T.  Fisher  Unwin, 
London. 

Suggestive  and  inspiring;    full  of  anecdote. 

Kleiser,  Grenville,  How  to  Speak  in  Public.     Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co., 
New  York,  191 2. 

About  200  pages  of  instruction  with  300  pages  of  selections  for 
practice. 

Lawrence,  Edwin  Gordon,  How  to  Master  the  Spoken  Word.     A.  C. 

McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1913. 
Lawrence,  Edwin  Gordon,  Speech-making.     A.  S.  Barnes  Co.,  New 
York,  1912. 

About  50  pages  of  instruction,  followed  by  selected  speeches. 
'  Text  books  on  Rhetoric  have  been  purposely  omitted. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  345 

Lee,  Guy  Carleton,  Principles  of  Public  Speaking.     G.  P.  Putnam's 

Sons,  New  York,  1905. 
Pearson,  P.  ^l.,  and  Hicks,  P.  ^I.,  Extemporaneous  Speaking.     Hinds, 

Noble  &  Eidredge,  New  York,  191 2. 
Phillips,  A.  E.,  Effective  Speaking.     The  Newton  Co.,  Chicago,  1913. 
Scott,  Walter  Dill,  Psychology  of  Public  Speaking.     Pearson  Bros., 

Philadelphia,  1907. 
Seymour,  Charles,  Speaking  in  Public.     E.  P.  Button  &  Co.,  New 

York,  1909. 

A  book  of  English  authorship,  but  containing  valuable  hints  to 
speakers  in  any  land.      Suggests  exercises  for  self-development. 

Sheppard,  Nathan,  Before  an  .\udicncc.    Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co.,  New 
York,  1886. 

Inspiring.     Written  in  a  racy  stjle. 

Shurter,  Edwin   DuBois,  Extempore  Speaking.     Ginn   &  Co.,  New 
York,  1908. 

IL   Tone  Production 

Aiken,  W.  .\.,  The  Voice  —  an  Introduction  to  Practical  Phonology. 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Appelt,  Alfred,  Real  Cause  of  Stammering.     Methuen  &  Co.,  London. 
Advocates  psycho-analysis  as  a  cure. 

Hatfield,  M.  L.,  Ilffw  to  Stop  Stammering.     Fox  Press,  1910. 

Written   by  one   who   was   himself  a  stammerer.     Gives  good 
suggestions  and  exercises. 

Jones,   Dora  Duty,   The    Technique  of  Speech.     Harper    &    Bros., 

New  York,  1909. 
Mills,  Wesley,    Voice  Production  in  Singing  and  Speaking.     J.   B. 

Lippincolt  Co.,  1913. 

Extended  and  scientific  discussion. 

Scripture,  E.  W.,  Stuttering  and  Lisping.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  New 

York,  1912. 
Thori)e,  E.  T.  Ellery,  Speech  Hesitation.     E.  S.  WcriKr  &  Co.,  New 

V'ork,  i()Oo. 

Contains  endorsement   by   O.   .Stanley    Ilall.     Advucati-s   (Ircp 

breathing  as  a  remedy. 


346  ORAL   ENGLISH 

III.  Interpretative  Reading 

Ayers,  Alfred,  The  Essentials  of  Elocution.  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co., 
New  York,  1897. 

Simple;    right  viewpoint. 

Clark,  S.  H.,  Hoiv  to  Teach  Reading  in  the  Public  Schools.     Scott, 

Foresman  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1903. 
Corson,  Hiram,  The  Voice  and  Spiritual  Education.     The  MacmiUan 

Co.,  New  York,  1897. 

A  sane  and  helpful  treatise  on  the  use  of  the  voice  in  the  study 
of  literature. 

Curry,  S.  S.,  Province  of  Expression  (1861),  Mind  and  Voice  (1910), 
Lessons  in  Vocal  E.vpression  (1895),  Imagination  and  Dramatic 
Instinct,  Vocal  and  Literary  Interpretation  of  the  Bible,  Browning 
and  the  Dramatic  Monologue,  Foundations  of  Expression,  Little 
Classics  for  Oral  English  (191 2),  Spoken  English  (19 13).  Ex- 
pression Co.,  Boston. 

The  foundation  principle  of  all  Dr.  Curry's  books  is  that  vocal 
expression  should  be  studied  "  as  a  manifestation  of  the  processes 
of  thinking,"  and  not  as  a  set  of  rules. 

Everts,  Katherine  Jewell,  The  Speaking  Voice.  Harper  &  Bros., 
New  York,  1908. 

A  successful  attempt  to  simplify  the  principles  which  govern  the 
use  of  the  speaking  voice  in  the  interpretation  of  literature. 

Everts,    Katherine   Jewell,     Vocal    Expression.     Harper    &    Bros., 

New  York. 
McMurry,  Charles,  Special  Method  in  the  Reading  of  the  Complete 

English  Classics.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1905. 
Phillips,  Arthur  Edward,  Natural  Drills  in  Expression.     Newton  Co., 

Chicago,  1913. 

Very  suggestive  and  helpful,  with  illustrative  extracts. 

Staley,  Delbert  Moyer,  Psychology  of  the  Spoken  Word.  Richard  G. 
Badger,  Boston,  1914. 

Contains  many  poetical  selections  for  practice,  with  brief  but 
helpful  suggestions  for  interpretation. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  347 

T.al,  Rev.  Thomas,  Iloii'  to  Train  the  Speaking  Voice.  Hodder  & 
Stoughton,  London;    George  H.  Doran  Co.,  New  York. 

A  very  simple,  sensible  presentation  of  the  whole  subject  of  the 
use  of  the  voice  in  reading. 

Winter,  Irving  L.,  Public  Speaking  —  Principles  and  Practice.  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

Fifty-six  pages  given  to  a  discussion  of  principles;    334  pages  to 
selections  for  practice. 

IX.   Pronunciation 

Payne,  Gertrude,  Everyday  Errors  in  Pronunciation,  Spelling,  and 
Spoken  English.     Orozco,  San  Francisco,  191 1. 

Phyfe,  William  Henr>'^  P.,  Eighteen  Thousand  Words  Often  Mispro- 
nounced.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1914. 

\'.   Selections  for  Reading  and  Declaaiation 

Blackstone,  Harriet  (Compiled  by).  The  Best  American  Orations  of 
To-day.     Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge,  New  York,  1903. 

Selections  chosen  for  purposes  of  declamation  on  anniversary 
or  other  occasions. 

Clark,  S.  H.,  Handbook  of  Best  Readings.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York,  1902. 
Cumnock,  Robt.  McLean,  Choice  Readings.     A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co., 

Chicago,  1 914. 
Frink,  Henry  Allyn,  The  New  Century  Speaker.     Ginn  &  Co.,  New 

York,  1898. 
Fulton  and  Trueblood,  Choice  Readings,  Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York,  1SS4. 
Fulton  and  Trueblood,  Standard  Selections,  Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York, 

1907. 
Pearson,  Paul  M.,  The  Humorous  Speaker.     Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge, 

New  York,  1909. 
Pcarsfjn,  Paul  AL,  The  Speaker.     8  Vols,  and  IikKx.       Hinds,  Noble 

&  Eldrcflge,  New  York. 

Shurter,  Edwin  DuBois,  The  Modern  American  Speaker.     Gammel 
Book  Co.,  Austin,  Texas,  1901. 

Selections  suitaljlc   for  declamation. 


348  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Shurter,  Edwin  DuBois,  Public  Speaking,  AUyn  &  Bacon,  Boston, 
1903- 
A  high-school  text  with  well-chosen  selections  for  practice. 

VI.  Argument  and  Persuasion 

Alden,  R.  M.,  The  A  rt  of  Debate.     Henry  Holt  &  Co. ,  New  York,  1 906. 

Baker,  G.  P.,  and  Huntington,  H.  B.,  Principles  of  Argumentation. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York,  1905. 

Bulletin  of  University  of  Wisconsin,  How  to  Judge  a  Debate.     H.  W. 
Wilson  Co.,  White  Plains,  N.  Y. 

Denny,  Duncan  and  McKinney,  Argumentation  and  Debate.     Ameri- 
can Book  Co.,  New  York,  1910. 

Foster,    Wm.    Trufant,    Argumentation    and    Debating.     Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1908. 
A  college  textbook. 

Foster,  Wm.  Trufant,  Essentials  of  Exposition  and  Argument.     Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Co.,  191 1. 

A  text  intended  for  use  in  upper  years  of  high  school  and  in 
college. 

Ketchum,   Victor  A.,    Theory   and   Practice  of  Argumentation   and 

Debate.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1914. 
Laycock,   C,  and  Scales,   R.  L.,  Argumentation  and  Debate.     The 

Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1910. 
Laycock,   C.  and   Scales,   R.   L.,   Manual  of  Argumentation.     The 

Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1909. 
A  high-school  text. 
Lyman,  RoUo  L.,  Bulletin  of  University  of  Wisconsin.     Principles,  of 

Efective  Debating.     H.  W.  Wilson  Co.,  White  Plains,  N.  Y. 
Lyon,  Everett  S.,  Elements  of  Debating.     The  University  of  Chicago 

Press,  1913. 
MacEwan,  Elias  T.,  Essentials  of  Argumentation.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 

New  York,  1898. 
Pattee,  Geo.  K.,  Practical  Argumentation.     The  Century  Co.,  New 

York,  1913. 
Perry,  F.  M.,  An  Introductory  Course  in  Argumentation.     American 

Book  Co.,  New  York,  1906. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  349 

Robinson,  A.  T.,  The  Applications  of  Logic.     Longmans,  Green  & 
Co.,  New  York,  1912. 

A  textbook  for  college  students  which  contains  helpful  sug- 
gestions for  the  teacher  of  argument. 

Seward,  Samuel  Swayzc,  Jr.,  Note-taking.     AUyn  &  Bacon,  Boston, 
1910. 

Suggestions  to  teachers  and  students  as  to  the  best  methods  of 
taking  notes,  both  from  lectures  and  from  printed  material. 

Shurter,  Edwin  DuBois,  Science  and  Art  of  Debate.   Neale  Publishing 

Co.,  New  York,  1908. 
Sidgvvick,   Alfred,    The  Process  of  Argument.     Adam   and   Charles 

Black,  London,  1893. 

A  good  book  for  the  teacher's  desk.     Contains  many  examples. 

MI.   General  References  on  Debatable  Subjects 

Askew,  John  Bertram,  Pros  and  Cons.     5th  ed.     E.  P.  Button  & 
Co.,  New  York,  1911. 

Although  prepared  by  an  English  author,  it  contains  many 
questions  which  are  discussed  in  all  countries.  Arranged  in  diction- 
ary form. 

Bliss,  William  D.  P.,  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform.     Funk  &  W'ag- 

nalls  Co.,  New  York,  1908. 
Brooking,  W.  DuBois  and  Ringwalt,  Ralph  Curtis,  Briefs  for  Debate. 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  1909. 
Carpenter,    Oliver    Clinton,    Debate   Outlines   on    Public   Questions. 

Broadway  Publishing  Co.,  New  York,  191 2. 
Craig,  A.  H.,  Pros  and  Cons.     Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldrcdgc,  New  York, 

1897. 
Debater's  Handbook  Scries.     11.  \\ .  Wilson  Co.,  White  Plains,  N.  Y. 

There  are  about  25  small  volumes  already  [jublished  in  this 
series  and  more  arc  in  preparation.  Each  volume  gives  a  list  of 
references,  a  i)ricf  outline,  and  selections  from  the  best  articles  on 
both  the  afiirmalive  and  negative  of  some  one  debatable  subject. 

Matson,  Henry,  References  for  Literary  Workers.     A.  C.  McClurg 

&  Co.,  Chicago,  1897. 
Nichols,  Egbert  Ray,  Intercollegiate  Debates,  \<il.  II.     Hinds,  Noble 

&  Eldredge,  New  York,  1914. 


350  ORAL  ENGLISH 

Pearson,  Paul  M.     Intercollegiate  Debates,  Vol.  I.     Hinds,  Noble  & 
Eldredge,  New  York,  1909. 

See  also  index  to  The  Speaker  for  briefs. 

Ringwalt,    Ralph   Curtis,    Briefs   on   Public  Questions.     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  1908. 
Robbins,  E.  C,  The  High  School  Debate  Book.     A.  C.  McClurg  & 

Co.,  Chicago,   igii. 
Shurter,  Edwin  DuBois,  and  Taylor,  Carl  Cleveland,  Both  Sides  of 

100  Public  Questions.     Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge,  New  York, 

1913- 
Thomas,  Ralph  W.,  A  Manual  of  Debate.     American  Book  Co.,  New 
York,  1910. 

VHI.   Oratory  or  Occasional  Speeches 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  Oratory.     The  Penn  Publishing  Co.,  Philadel- 
phia, 1 90 1. 

An  eloquent  plea  for  training  in  the  art  of  speaking. 

Brink,  Clark  Mills,  The  Making  of  an  Oration.     A.  C.  McClurg  & 
Co.,  Chicago,  1913. 

Two  hundred  pages  given  to  a  discussion  of  method  and  about 
the  same  amount  to  specimen  orations.  Contains  a  list  of  oration 
subjects. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  Lectures  on  Preaching.     E.  P.  Button  &  Co.,  New 

York,  1877. 
Goss,  John,  Forensic  Eloquence.     S.  Carson  Co.,  San  Francisco,  i8gi. 

Gives  general  instruction  in  the  rhetoric  of  oratory,  with  illus- 
trations of  each  point,  taken  from  English  and  American  authors. 

Matthews,   Brander,   Notes  on    Speech-making.     Longmans,    Green 
&  Co.,  New  York,  1901. 

Two  essays,  the  first  of  which  gives  advice  of  a  general  nature 
and  the  second  suggestions  on  the  after-dinner  speech.  A  tiny 
book,  delightfully  written  and  inspiring. 

Maury,  The  Abbe,  The  Principles  of  Eloquence.     Harper  &  Bros., 
New  York,  1842. 

A  quaint  and  interesting  treatise  which  gives  numerous  short 
examples. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


351 


Pittenger,  William,  Toasls.  The  Pcnn  Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia, 
1914. 

Gives  suggestions  as  to  the  preparation  of  after-dinner  speeches 
and  contains  a  collection  of  anecdotes. 

Power,  John  O'Connor,  Tlic  Making  of  an  Orator.  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  New  York,  1906. 

Scars,  Lorenzo,  The  Occasional  Address,  lis  Composition  and  Litera- 
ture.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1897. 

.\  very  readable  discussion  of  the  structure  and  quaUties  of  the 
different  forms  of  demonstrative  oratory,  such  as  eulogy,  com- 
memorative speech,  commencement  address,  and  after-dinner 
speech.      Gives  history  of  development  and  lists  of  examples. 

Shurter,  Edwin  DuBois,  The  Rhetoric  of  Oratory.  The  Macmillan 
Co.,  New  York,  1909. 

IX.   Speech  Collections 

Adams,   Charles   Kendall,   Representative  British  Orations.     3   \'ols. 

G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1884. 

Selected  for  their  literary  as  well  as  theii"  historic  value. 
Baker,  George  P.  (Edited  by),  The  Forms  of  Public  Address.     Henry 

Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Contains  an  excellent  introduction  to  teachers;  also  valuable 
examples  of  letters,  editorials,  and  speeches  on  various  occasions. 

Baker,  George  P.,  Specimens  of  Argumentation.     Henrj^  Holt  &  Co., 

New  York,  1897. 
Boardman,    Lester    W.,    Modern    American    Speeches.     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Contains  speeches  of  Schurz,  Grady,  Hay,  and  Root. 
Brewer,  David  T.,  World's  Best  Orations.     10  \'o!s.  and  sui)i)lement. 

I'" red  r.  Kaiser,  St.  Louis,  1809. 
Bryan,  William  Jennings,  World's  Famous  Orations.     10  \'uls.     Funk 

&  Wagnalis  Co.,  New  York. 
Depcw,   C'hauncey   .M..  Orations,  .Addresses,  and  Speeches.     8  Vols. 

Privately  j)rintcd.  New  ^'o^k,  1910. 
Depew,  Chauncey  M.  (Edited  by).  The  Lihrary  of  Oratory.      15  \'ols. 

E.  K.  Du  Mont,  New  York,  1902. 


352  ORAL   ENGLISH 

Fulton,   Robert  Irving,  and  Trueblooci,  Thomas  Clarkson,   British 
and  American  Eloquence.     Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York,  1912. 

Fulton,  Robert  Irving,  and  Trueblood,  Thomas  Clarkson,  Patriotic 
Eloquence.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1903. 

Selections  from,  speeches  which  deal  with  the  Spanish-American 
War  and  its  issues. 

Knapp,  Ella  A.,  and  French,  John  C,  The  Speech  for  Special  Occa- 
sions.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  191 1. 

Excellent  collection  with  helpful  introduction  and  appendix. 

Lee,  Guy  Carleton,  The  World's  Orators.     10  \'ols.     G.  P.  Putnam's 

Sons,  New  York,  1901. 
Morris,  Charles,  The  World's  Great  Orators  and  Their  Best  Orations. 

John  C.  Winston  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1902. 

Contains  a  biography  of  the  orator  and  a  description  of  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  each  oration  was  delivered. 

Prather,  Charles  Edgar  (Edited  by),  Winning  Orations  of  the  Interstate 
Oratorical  League.     2  Vols.     Crane  &  Co.,  Topeka,  Kan.,  1908. 
Representative  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Orations.     Houghton    Mifflin    Co., 
Boston,  1915. 

Contains  twenty-six  of  the  best  orations  selected  by  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  United  Chapters  of  Phi  Beta  Kappa. 

Ringwalt,   Ralph   Curtis,   Modern  American  Oratory.     Henry  Holt 
&  Co.,  New  York,  1898. 

Contains  90  pages  of  theory  and  about  220  pages  of  examples. 

Shurter,  Edwin  DuBois,  Masterpieces  of  Modern  Oratory,     Ginn  & 
Co.,  New  York,  1906. 

Shurter,  Edwin  DuBois,  Representative  College  Orations.     The  Mac- 
millan Co.,  New  York,  1909. 

Trueblood,  Thomas  C,  Caskey,  William  G.,  and  Gordon,  Henry  E. 
(Edited  by),  Winning  Speeches  in  the  Contests  of  the  Northern 
Oratorical  League.     American  Book  Co.,  New  York,  1909. 
College  orations  which  have  won  first  and  second  prizes. 

Wagner,  Leopold,  Modern  Political  Orations.     Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
New  York,  1896. 

A  collection  of  some  of  the  best  speeches  of  English  orators  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  353 

Woodburn,  James  Albert  (Edited  by),  American  Eloquence.     4  \'oIs. 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1S96. 

X.   History  of  Oratory 

Curzon,    Earl   of    Kedleston,    Modern   Parliamentary  Oratory.     The 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1914. 

Contains  interesting  descriptions  and  anecdotes  of  famous 
English  orators. 

Hardwick,  Henry,  History  of  Oratory  and  Orators.     G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  New  York,  iSg6. 

Contains  biographies,  descriptions  of  the  oratory,  and  anecdotes 
of  the  great  orators  of  Greece  and  Rome,  England,  France,  and 
America;  also  e.xtracts  illustrative  of  style.  Very  helpful  in  the 
preparation  of  programs. 

Mathews,    William,    Oratory    and    Orators.     S.   C.   Griggs    &    Co., 
Chicago,  1879. 

Written  in  an  entertaining  style.  Contains  delightful  biographi- 
cal sketches  of  English  and  American  orators,  together  with  some 
discussion  of  the  st>le  of  each. 

Sears,  Lorenzo,   The  History  of  Oratory.     Scott,  Foresman  &  Co., 
Chicago,  1897. 

Furnishes  excellent  material  for  speeches  on  the  lives  and  charac- 
teristics of  orators. 

XI.   Programs  for  Anniversaries 

Olcott,  Frances  Jenkins,  Good  Stories  for  Great  Holidays.     Houghton 
Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston,  1914. 

Stevenson,  Burton  E.  and  Elizabeth  B.,  Days  and  Deeds.     Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York,  1906. 

Contains  poetical  selections  suitable  for  recitation  on  holidays 
and  the  anniversaries  of  great  Americans. 

XH.   Debating  SoaETiES  and  Parliamentary  Law 
Lyman,    Kollo  L.,   Debating  Societies,  Organization  and  Procedure. 
Bulletin  of  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Civcs  morlcl  constitution  and  synopsis  of  parliamentary  law. 
Gregg,  F.  M.,  Handbook  of  Parliamentary  Law.     Ginn  &  Co.,  New 
York,  1 910. 


INDEX 


Abstract  terms,  73 

Absurdity,  reducing  to  an,  160 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  quotation  from, 
166 

Adjectives  that  describe  motions,  74 

Affirmative,  relation  to  question,  127; 
relation  to  burden  of  proof,  128; 
usually  advocates  a  change,  128; 
privilege  of,  1 29 

After-dinner  speech,  characteristics  of, 
282;   three  kinds  of,  284 

Agriculture,  address  at  dedication  of 
College  of,  239 

Alden,  R.  M.,  quotation  from,  139,  170, 
205 

Alternates,  choice  of,  197 

Alternative,  162 

Analogy,  how  to  refute,  160 

Analysis  of  a  question  for  debate, 
144-150;  definition  of,  144;  divided 
into  two  steps,  144;  value  of,  148 

Argument,  purpose  and  definition,  61; 
distinctive  feature  of  plan  for,  84; 
discussion  of,  120;  relation  to  per- 
suasion, 120;  how  to  test,  157; 
nature  of  introduction  to,  182; 
kinds  which  may  be  used  in  an  ora- 
tion, 24s 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  speech  introducing, 
276 

Articulation,  12 

Ass<jciation,  law  of,  43 

Athletic  Club,  address  at  laying  the 
corner  stone  of,  244 

Atlanta  Exfxjsition,  address  at  the 
opening  of,  235 

Attitude  of  a  debater,  204-206;  toward 
his  subject,  204;  toward  his  opp(<- 
nents,  205;  as  a  loser,  205;  as  a 
winner,  206 

Audience,  consirleration  of  when  plan- 
ning speech,  68;    228 


Authority,  nature  of,  156-157;  citation 
of,  157 

Bacon,  Sir  Francis,  quotation  from,  93, 

137 
Baker,  G.  P.,  quotation  from,  149 
Balanced  question  for  debate,  130 
Balanced  sentence,  116 
Bates,  John  L.,  extract  from,  262 
Because,   importance   of   in   argument, 

85,  157 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  methods  of,  15; 
extract  from,  222;  .adaptation  of 
message,  228;    cjuotation  from,  232 

"Begging"  the  question,  162 

Body  of  a  speech,  plan  for  unity  in, 
81 

Book,  position  of,  10 

Books,  how  to  find  references  to,  135 

Breath,  control  of,  10 

Brief,  a,  the  making  of,  166-172;  in- 
dention of,  167;  symbols  in,  168; 
complete  sentence  in,  168;  relation 
of  subordinate  points  to  main  points, 
168;  partition  in,  lOy;  coherence 
in,  183;  emphasis  in,  184;  of  speech 
on  Morocco,  189;  specimen.  Ap- 
pendix V,  521-523,  arranged  for 
two  or  three  speakers,  Apj)endix  V, 

324-325 
Briefs,   right    and   wrong   use  of,    166; 

list  of,  Appendix  VI,  326-332 
Brooks,  Phillips,  extract  from,  108 
Browning,  Robert,  extract  from,  36 
Bryan,  \V.  J.,  extract  from,  211,  220 
Bryant,  William  ("ulten,  si)eech  by,  232 
Bryic,  James,  (juotalion   from,  58;  ex- 
tract from,  274 
Burke,     Edmund,     extract     from,    05; 
use  scientific   facts,    70;    quotation 
from,  124 
Burns,  Robert,  eulogy  on,  232 


3S6' 


INDEX 


Card  catalogue,  use  of,  1,55 

Cards,  use  of  in  copying  references,  136 

Cause  to  effect,  reasoning  from,  157; 
how  to  refute,  159 

Channing,  VV.  E.,  extract  from,  152 

Charles  I,  extract  on,  from  Macaulay, 
108 

Chest,  position  of,  10 

Chin,  position  of,  10 

Choate,  Rufus,  habit  of  reading  aloud, 
22 

Cicero,  quotation  from,  1S4 

Citizenship,  influenced  by  studying  the 
art  of  speaking,  4,  122 

Clark,  S.  H.,  rule  of,  23 

Clash  of  opinion,  how  to  make,  146; 
specimen,  Appendix  V,  319-320 

Clay,  Henry,  use  of  impromptu  method, 
88 

Climax,  how  expressed  in  reading.  28; 
in  a  sentence,  no;  means  of  em- 
phasis, 113 

Close  of  a  speech,  what  to  do  at  the,  48 

Coherence,  meaning  of  in  a  speech,  82; 
how  to  secure —  by  a  plan,  82;  in  a 
narration,  103;  in  a  description, 
104;  gained  by  use  of  connective 
words,  112;  gained  by  similar  con- 
struction, 112;  in  a  brief,  168;  in 
the  development  of  a  speech,  183; 
in  a  closing  refutation  speech,  218 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  quotation  from,  228 

Collection,  necessity  of,  74;  form  of, 
74;  how  to  enlarge,  75;  how  to 
classify  specimens  in,  75 

Columbian  Oration,  extract  from,  243 

Commemorative  address,  occasions  for, 
247;  historical  nature  of,  247; 
more  than  a  narrative,  248;  list  of, 
Appendix  X,  340-341 

Commencement  oration,  choice  of  sub- 
ject for,  249;  suggestions  for  treat- 
ment of,  250 

Comparison  as  a  method  of  developing 
ideas,  70 

Composition,  discussion  of,  Part  II, 
58-119;    compared  to  a  stream,  186 

Compound  sentence,  correct  formation 
of,  no;   incorrect,  in 

Conciliation  with  the  Colonies,  extract 
from,  6s 

Conciseness,  113 


Conclusion,  how  to  develop  for  unity, 
81;   how  to  test,  157-159;   examples 
of,    2og;    brevity   of,  215;    purposes 
of,  216;    personal,  216;    three  kinds 
of  emphatic,  217 
Concord  Oration,  extract  from,  212 
Concrete  terms,  74;   material,  185 
Conferences,  method  of  conducting,  198; 

value  of,  ioo 
Congressional  Record,  use  of,  135 
Connectives,  means  of  coherence,   112; 

list  of,  118 
Conservatism,  extract  from,  97 
Constructive  case  of  negative,  129 
Contrast,  expression  of,  in  reading,  23; 

in  a  compound  sentence,  no 
Conversation,  basis  of  reading,  23 
Cooper    Union    Speech,    extract   from, 

I  S3 
Corn  Law  League,  address  before,  109 
Corson,  Hiram,  quotation  from,  49 
Criticism,  suggestions  in  regard  to,  14; 

in  practice  debates,  200 
Cummins,  Senator  Albert  Baird,  extract 

from,  100 
Curry,  S.  S.,  quotations  from,  23,  28 
Curtis,  George  William,  extracts  from, 
66,  97,   212,   213;    use  of  historical 
facts,  69;   use  of  concrete  terms,  74 

Daniel,  John  W.,  extract  from,  100 

Debate,  game  of,  120-125;  purpose  of, 
120;  defined,  121;  winner  of,  121; 
value  of  understanding,  122;  rela- 
tion to  life,  122;  effect  on  citizen- 
ship, 122;  on  sincerity,  123;  as  an 
exercise,  124;  practice,  how  con- 
ducted, 127 

Declamation,  resemblance  to  public 
speaking,  42;  memorized  reading, 
42;    poise,  46;    gesture,  48 

Declarative  sentence,  114 

Decoration  Day,  Oration  on,  extract 
from,  211 

Dedicatory  address,  discussion  of,  248; 
examples  of,  229-243 

Defects  of  voice,  possibility  of  over- 
coming, 14 

Definition  of  a  question  for  debate,  14s; 
how  to  find,  14s;  prepared  by  both 
aflTirmative  and  negative,  146;  quib- 
bling to  be  avoided,  146 


INDEX 


357 


DeUver>-,  meaning  of,  8;  conversational, 

46 
Demosthenes,  methods  of,  15 
Depew,    Chauncey    M.,    extract    from, 

211,  243,  244;  speech-of,  271,  276, 

278 
Description,  definition  and  purpose,  60; 

how  used  by  speakers,  61;   unity  in, 

104;    coherence  in,    104;    emphasis 

in,  105;    examples  of,  gg-ioi 
Development  of  a  speech  from  a  brief, 

181-186 
Dewey,   Admiral,   presentation   of   cup 

to,  278 
Dickens,  Charles,  speech  of,  54;    refer- 
ence to  Charles  Lamb,  69;    habit  of 

observation,  70 
Dictionary',    use    of    when    studying    a 

reading  lesson,  25;    in  writing,  72; 

in  defining  a  question  for  debate,  145 
Dilemma,  161 

Directness,  means  of  emphasis,  113 
Discourse,  the  speaker's  use  of  the  four 

forms  of,  62 
Doul>le-team  system,  value  of,  iq7 
Dramatic  representation,  faults  in,  49 

Ear,  the,  how  to  train,  14 

Earnestness,  quality  of  the  persuasive 
speaker,  226 

Effect  to  cause,  reasoning  from,  158; 
how  to  refute,  159 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  extract  from,  34 

Emphasis,  definition  of,  in  reading,  20; 
distribution  of,  27;  meaning  of,  in 
composition,  82;  how  to  secure 
through  a  plan,  82;  in  narration, 
103;  in  description,  105;  in  a  sen- 
tence, 113;  in  a  brief,  167;  in  the 
flevelor)ment  of  a  speech,  184;  in  a 
closing  refutation  speech,  194 

Equipment,  the  speaker's,  meaning  of, 
68 

Escnwein,  J.  Berg,  quotation  from,  88, 
139 

P^ulogy,  the,  occasions  for,  24O;  mure 
than  a  biography,  246;    handling  of, 

247 
Example,  argument  from,  how  to  refute, 

105 
Exclamatory  sentence,  use  in  oratory, 
114 


Exposition,  purpose  and  definition,  61; 

plan  for,  85 
Extempore     method,    description     of, 

89-93;    how  to    avoid    dangers  of, 

90;  three  merits  of,  92 

Fact,  known,  to  unknown  effect,   158; 

to  unknown  cause,  158 
Facts,  an  element  of  proof,   155;    how 

to  test,  156 
Fallacy,    definition   of,    164;    examples 

of,  165 
Farewell  address,  266 
Feeling,  necessity  of,  in  reading,  28 
Feet,  position  of,  10 
Field,  David  Dudley,  extract  from,  211 
Fisher,  Harry  Johnson,  speech  of,  279 
Foster,  W.  T.,  quotation  from,  124 
Fox,  Charles  James,  frequent  practice 

in  Parliament,  93;   quotation  from, 

184 
Fox,  W.  F.,  extract  from,  109 
Frickhic,  Barbara,  39 

Garfield,  James  A.,  extract  from,  220 
Generalizations,  how  to  test,  157 
General  terms,  127 
Gesture,  defined,  48;   two  classes  of,  49; 

result  of  impulse,  49;    faults  in,  49; 

quotations  from  Phillips  and  Corson, 

49 
Gettysburg  Address,  The,  38 
Gift,  presentation  of,  example  of,  278, 

279;     acceptance    of,    examples    of, 

279,  281;   discussion  of,  285 
Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  acceptance 

of  a  gift  by,  279 
Grady,   Henry   W.,   extracts  from,   34, 

35.  QQ.  209 
Grant,  L'lysses  S.,  extract  from  eulogy 

on,  67 
Graves,  J.  T.,  extract  from,  36 

Iludley,  Arthur  Twining,  extract  from, 
261 ;   si)ecch  of,  281 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  quotation  from, 
132 

Hands,  problem  of,  47 

Haste,  fault  of,  in  beginning  a  decla- 
mation, 46 

Hav.-ina,  description  of,  100 

Hay,  John,  extract  from,  209 


358 


INDEX 


Henry,  O.,  his  study  of  the  dictionary, 
72 

Henry,  Patrick,  extract  from,  153 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  quota- 
tion from,  89,  185 

History,  value  of  study  of,  for  a  speaker, 
69 

Hoarseness,  not  a  preventive  of  prac- 
tice, 21 

Holyoake,  Geo.  J.,  quotation  from,  123, 
227 

Home  and  the  RepubHc,  The,  extract 
from,  99 

Hughes,  James  L.,  extract  from,  262 

Hunt,  Thomas  Forsyth,  inaugural 
address  of,  260 

Ideals,     appealed     to     by     persuasive 

speaker,    229 
Ignoring  the  question,  162 
Illustrations   to    develop  an  idea,   185; 

from  common  experience,  186 
Imperative  sentence,  use  in  exhortation, 

IIS 

Impromptu  method,  use  in  literary 
societies,  88;  value  of,  91;  defects 
of,  93 

Inaugural  address,  examples  of,  255; 
contents  of,  265 

Inconsistency,  161 

Indention  in  a  brief,  167 

IngersoU,  Robert  G.,  extract  from,  100 

Intensity,  law  of,  43;  use  of,  in  memo- 
rizing, 45 

Interrogative  sentence,  used  to  intro- 
duce a  thought,  114;  to  conclude  a 
thought,  114 

Introducing  a  speaker,  266 

Introduction,  to  a  short  speech,  59;  to 
a  brief,  166;  examples  of,  209;  brev- 
ity of,  215;  purposes  of,  216;  per- 
sonal, 216;  for  the  purpose  of  unity, 
216;  general,  217;  suggestive,  217; 
to  Lincoln's  address  at  Cooper 
Institute,  Appendix  IV,  317-318 

Irving,  Washington,  quotation  from, 
70 

Issue,  the  main,  how  to  find,  147; 
illustration  of.  Appendix  V,  320 

Jones,  Edgar  R.,  quotation  from,  229 
Judges  of  a  debate,  attitude  toward,  205 


Jury  Address,  Webster's,  extracts  from, 
34.  35-  98,  153 

KipHng,  Rudyard,  address  by,  222 

Lafayette,  extract  from  eulogy  on,  213 

Languages,  value  of  study  of,  for  a 
speaker,  69 

Lee,  Robert  E.,  description  of,  100 

Library,  how  to  use,  132;  portion  of  an 
address  at  dedication  of  Doe,  242 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  The  Gettysburg 
Address,  38;  extracts  from,  65,  153, 
220;  his  power  of  observation,  70; 
early  practice  in  debate,  120;  ex- 
tract from  oration  on,  210,  234; 
Second  Inaugural  of,  255 

Lips,  inactivity  of,  1 2 

Literature,  value  of  study  of,  for  a 
speaker,  69 

Long  sentence,  effect  of,  115 

Loose  sentence,  115 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  quotation  from, 
81,  18s,  283 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  extract  from,  108,  152 
Magazine  articles,  how  to  find,  134 
Material,  how  to  find,  133-138 
Matthews,    Brander,    quotation    from, 

283 
McKinley,   President  William,    extract 

from  eulogy  on,  209 
Memorizing,  faulty  method  of,  42;  best 
method  of,  43;  its  value,  45;  group- 
ing material  for,  in  a  story,  52;   best 
method  of,  for  poetry,  52 
Memory,  laws  of,  43 
Mental  pictures,  aid  to  emphasis,   29, 

i8s 
Minister's  throat,  12 
Misrepresentation  condemned,  204 
Morocco,  policy  of  M.  Delcasse  in,  175 
Mouth,  openness  of,  11 
Muck-Rake,  The  Man  with  the,  extract 

from,  209 
Mumbling,  12 

Napoleon,  Address  to  Army  of  Italy,  221 
Narration,   definition,   60;    purpose  of, 

61;  unity  in,  102;  coherence  in,  103; 

emphasis  in,  104 
Narratives,  examples  of,  97-99 


INDEX 


359 


Nasal  resonance,  how  to  secure,  12 
Nasal  "twang,"  how  to  avoid,  iS 
Natural  order  of  ideas,  103 
Negative,    relation    to    question,    127; 

relation   to   burden   of   proof,    128; 

statement  of  question,  i2g 
Newman,  John  Philip,  extract  from,  2,54 
New  South,  The,  extract  from,  34,  35, 

209 
Note-taking,    13S-140;     net    in    exact 

words,    138;     condensed,    130;     an 

exact    quotation,    13Q;     intelligible, 

140;  on  slips  or  cards,  140;  example 

of,  143 

Observation,  value  of,  70;    how  to  cul- 
tivate the  habit  of,  71 
Occasions,  speeches  for  special,  245-200 
O'Connell,  Daniel,  extract  from  eulogy 

on,  97;    quotation  from,  149 
Open  air,  use  of  voice  in,  13,  15 
Oration,    the,    examples    of,    232-244; 
discussion  of,  245-250;    how  it  dif- 
fers   from    debate,    245;     kinds    of 
arguments  which  may  be  used  in, 
24s,  in  honor  of  a  person,  245;    in 
honor  of  an  event,  24O;   commence- 
ment, 247 
Oratory,  definition  of,  245;    character- 
istics of,  245;  requisites  for  success 

in,  24s 

Originality,  meaning  of,  71;  how  to 
develop,  71 

Outline,  word-brace,  the  preparation  of, 
for  memorizing,  43;  use  of,  for  mem- 
orizing, 44;  the  preparation  of,  in 
composition,  83;  the  memorizing  of, 
00;  specimen,  for  student's  two- 
minute  speech,  Appendix  1,  291 

Pamphlets,  issued  by  government,  136; 

by  organizations,  136 
Paragraph,  transition,  183 
Parallel  case,  how  to  refute,  159 
I'arallel  construction,  112 
Partition,  methods  of,  in  a  debate,  127, 

169 
Pauses,  relation  of,  to  thought-groups, 

25;   varied  length  of,  26;   relation  of, 

to  punctuation,  2O 
Pericles,  earnestness  of,  221 
Periodic  sentence,  116 


Persuasion,  meaning  of,  58,  120;  many 
speeches  in  which  it  is  the  object, 
120;  relation  to  argument,  120; 
examples  of,  220 

Persuasive  speaker,  the,  attitude  of, 
toward  himself,  227;  toward  his 
subject,  227;  toward  his  audience, 
228;  adaptation  of  message,  228; 
creation  of  a  sense  of  unity  by,  229 

Persuasive  speech,  the,  226-229;  ref- 
erence to  St.  Paul's,  231 

Phillips,  A.  E.,  rule  in  regard  to  imita- 
tion, 49 

Phillips,  Austin,  quotation  from,  166 

Phillips,  Wendell,  extract  from,  97 

Phrasing,  in  music  and  in  reading,  25; 
art  of,  in  composition,  110-116 

Pilch,  exercise  for,  19;  relation  to  em- 
phasis, 27 

Plan,  used  by  Dickens,  63;  for  a  speech, 

79-85 

Plato,  quotation  from,  60 

Poetry,  reading  of,  39;  outline  for 
memorizing,  52 

Poise,  46 

Poole's  Index,  134 

Porter,  Horace,  extract  from,  67 

Practice,  necessity  of,  in  curing  voice 
defects,  14;  in  reading,  23;  best 
method  of,  in  reading,  24 

Prejudice,  relation  to  testimony,  156 

Prentiss,  Sargent  S.,  extract  from,  213 

Presiding  officer,  of  a  team,  198;  exam- 
ples of  speeches  of,  255;  discussion 
of  speeches  of,  264;  general  nature 
of,  2O4;  inaugural  of,  2O4;  farewell 
si)eech  of,  26O;  introductory  speech 
of,  266 

Proof,  burden  of,  128;  shifting  of 
burden,  128;  in  clash  of  opinion,  146; 
tests  of,  155-163;   elements  of,  155 

Property  in  Slaves,  extract  from  William 
lillery  t'hanning,  152 

I'roiHirtion,  rclatiiin  to  emphasis,  184 

"Public  Duly  of  Kducatitl  Men,"  ex- 
tract from,  00 

Question  for  debate,  127-130;  avoid- 
ance of  negative  statement,  129; 
balanced,  130 

Questions,  list  of  debatable,  Ap|K-ndix 
VI.  ^26^^32 


360 


INDEX 


Quotation,  direct,  113;  how  to  make 
note  of  an  exact,  140;  as  the  intro- 
duction to  a  speech,  217 

Reader's  Guide,  how  to  use,  134 
Reading,  22-31;  as  a  method  of  voice 
training,  22;  value  of,  22;  conver- 
sational, 23;  rule  of  Professor  S.  H. 
Clark,  23;  necessity  of  study  to  get 
the  thought,  24;  phrasing,  25;  em- 
phasize, 26;  holding  the  thought,  29; 
rapid,  evil  of,  29;  giving  the  thought, 
30;  directions  for  the  study  of,  30; 
relation  to  literature,  31;  exercises 
in,  ss;  Lesson  I,  38;  of  poetry, 
39;   Lesson  IL  3Q;    HI,  54;  IV,  65; 

V,  97;  VI,  108;  vn,  152;  vin, 

17s;  IX,  209;  X,  226;  XI,  242 
Reasoning,   an   element   of  proof,    155; 

how  to  test,  158-160 
Reed,  Thomas  B.,  extract  from,  154 
References,  how  to  copy,   136;    at  the 
foot    of    notes,    140;    division    of, 
among  team  members,  198 
Refutation,  order   of  speeches  in,  129; 
how  expressed  in  a  brief,   169;   han- 
dling of,  192;  choice  of,  192;  placing 
of,    193;     closing    speech    in,    194; 
phrasing  of ,  194;  teamwork  in,  194 
Repetition,  law  of,  43;  of  ideas  in  varied 

language,  182 
Representative,  speech  of  a,  284 
Research,  time  given  to,  132;   necessity 

of,  in  debate,  157 
Resemblance,     argument     from,      159; 

how  to  refute,  159 
Resonance,  nasal,  12 
Rhythm,    relation    of,    to    thought    in 

poetry,  52 
Ringwalt,  R.  C,  quotation  from,  245 
Robinson,  Franklin  W.,  speech  of,  175 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  extract  from,  209, 

210 
Rowell,  Joseph  C,  portion  of  an  address 

by,  242 
Royce,  Josiah,  quotation  from,  183 
Rules  of  form  in  brief-making,  167 

Salutation,  value  of  choosing  early,  217 
Schedule    for    a    debating    team,    201; 

example  of,  324 
Science,  value  of  study  for  a  speaker,  70 


Selection  of  material,  137-138 

Self-consciousness,  the  cause  of  stiff- 
ness, 48;    124 

Self-control,  value  of  in  debate,  124 

Self-mastery;   the  result  of  practice,  3 

Sentence,  expressing  paragraph  in,  25; 
simple,  no;  complex,  no;  com- 
pound, no;  unity  in,  no;  coher- 
ence in,  113;  emphasis  in,  113; 
variety  in  structure,  114-116;  use 
of,  in  a  brief,  168;    transition,  183 

Seymour,  Charles,  quotation  from,  91 

Sheppard,  Nathan,  quotation  from,  68, 
93 

Shields,  Judge  Peter  J.,  address  by, 
239 

Shinn,  Josiah  H.,  extract  from,  263 

Short  sentence,  effect  of,  115 

Skim,  how  to,  137 

Social  occasions,  speeches  for,  examples 
of,  271-281;    discussion  of,  281 

Special  statements,  157;  relation  to 
general  statements,  158 

Speech,  written,  disadvantages  of,  91; 
when  advantageous,  93 

Stage  fright,  cause  of,  45;  how  pre- 
vented, 45 

Statistics,  how  to  find,  135;   use  of,  157 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  quotation 
from,  71,  89 

Story,  how  used  by  speakers,  103;  how 
to  plan,  103-105;  use  of  and  in,  in; 
as  the  introduction  to  a  speech,  217; 
means  of  unifying  audience,  229; 
use  of,  in  an  after-dinner  speech,  284 

Strenuous  Life,  The,  extract  from,  210 

Studies,  daily,  as  a  source  of  equip- 
ment, 69 

Study,  necessity  of,  for  reading,  24 

Subject,  choice  of,  for  a  speech,  79; 
necessity  of  narrowing,  80;  relation 
to  purpose,  81;  statement  of,  for 
debate,  127-130 

Subordinate  points  in  a  brief,  168; 
must  contain  but  one  idea,  169 

Subordinate  thought-groups,  how  ex- 
pressed in  reading,  28 

Summaries,  necessity  for  frequent,  182 

Symbols,  used  in  a  brief,  169;  repeti- 
tion of,  170 

Symmetry  of  Life,  extract  from,  108 

Synonyms,  exercise  on,  77 


INDEX 


361 


Teamwork,  197-201;  meaning  of  to  a 
judge,  197;  to  a  debater,  197;  in 
gathering  material,  198;  in  making 
a  brief,  199;  in  oral  practice,  199; 
in  preparation  for  refutation,  200; 
impwrtance  of,  200 

Technical  terms,  need  of  explaining, 
184 

Teeth,  separation  of,  11 

Theft,  literary,  defined,  138 

Theme  sentence  as  a  test  for  unity,  83 

Thought-groups,  28 

Throat,  closed,  12;   how  to  correct,  17 

Toast,  purpose  of  the,  2S3 

Tone  passage,  relaxation  of,  12 

Tone,  support  of,  11;  volume,  1 2 ;  rich- 
ness, 13;    singing,  13 

Topics,  not  suitable  for  debate,  127; 
use  of  in  Reader's  Guide,  134;  not 
usable  in  a  brief,  167;  list  of,  for  use 
of  team,  198 

Transition  paragraph,  183 

Transition  sentence,  183 

Tribute,  welcome,  285 

Turning  the  tables,  i6r 

Twang,  nasal,  12 

Two-mmute  speech,  specimen  of.  Ap- 
pendix I,  291-292 

Unity,  meaning  of  in  a  speech,  79;  how 
to  lay  the  basis  for,  in  a  plan,  80-81 ; 
how  to  secure,  in  a  narration,  102; 
how  to  secure,  in  a  description,  104; 
in  a  sentence,  110;  secured  by  par- 
tition of  a  iirief,  169;  how  secured  in 
development  of  a  brief,  181;  in  a 
closing  refutation  speech,  194;  by 
means  of  the  introduction  and  con- 
clusion, 194 

Value  of  studying  the  art  of  speaking, 


1-6;  to  the  engineer,  2 ;  the  business 
man,  2;   the  worker,  i 
Van  Dyke,  Henry,  quotation  from,  103 
Variety,  in  sentence  form,  114;    in  ex- 
pressions of  the  same  idea,  184;    in 
opening  a  point  in  refutation,  195 
\'erb,  suggestiveness  of,  in  an  outline, 

44;    value  of  active,  113 
Vigilance,  nccessarj'  in  a  debate,  195 
Vision  of  War,  A,  extract  from,  100 
Voice,  training  of,  9-20;   index  to  char- 
acter, 8;  cause  of  breathy,  1 1 ;  cause 
of  throaty,  12;   carrying  power,  13; 
necessity  of  practice,  14;   possibility 
of  overcoming  defects  in,  14;    exer- 
cises for,  17-20 
Vowels,  necessity  of  prolonging,  12 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  extract  from, 
210;   address  by,  235 

Webster,  habit  of  reading  aloud,  22;  ex- 
tracts from,  34,  35,  98,  153,  211; 
preparation  of,  68;  feeling  for 
words,  72;   quotation  from,  133 

Welcome,  address  of,  object  to  delight, 
267;  examples  of,  262;  to  a  con- 
vention, 267;  to  an  honored  guest,  285 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  Barbara 
Friehhie,  39 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  extract  from  222; 
inaugural  address  of,  256 

Wit,  20s 

Word-outline,  the,  preparation  of,  for 
memorizing,  43;  use  of,  for  memoriz- 
ing, 44 

Wonls,  how  to  gather  an  equipment  of, 
72;  Webster's  feeling  for,  72;  ap- 
propriateness of,  73;  variety  in, 
73;    picture-making,  74 

Worlil  life,  the  source  of  a  speaker's 
equipment,  70 


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